0-9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z

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3DFx graphics card. A type of graphics card that features a sophisticated coprocessor used to manipulate an image so that it appears more realistic. Complicated calculations are required in order to perform actions such as smoothing jagged shapes or showing the shadows that an object might cast.

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A

Access control. See User validation.

Access time. In terms of storage devices, the access time refers to the average time taken to locate a specific item of data. Access times are normally given in milliseconds, for example a typical hard disk drive might have an access time of 11 ms.

Active content. Describes a method by which a browser can restrict access to WWW pages that have been rated for their content.

Active-X. A programming language standard developed by Microsoft which permits complex and graphical customer applications to be written and then accessed from a web browser. An example might be a form for calculating interest on a loan. A competitor to Java.

Actors. People, software or other devices that interface with a system. See Use-case.

Ad clicks. An IFABC standard indicating the number of audited occasions a web banner or interstitial has been clicked on by a user to view an advert.

Adaptive system. In general, an adaptive system has the ability to monitor and regulate its own performance. In many cases, an adaptive system will be able to respond fully to changes in its environment by modifying its behaviour.

Address book. A folder that contains frequently used e-mail addresses. Rather than identifying other users by their e-mail addresses, individuals or groups can be given aliases or nicknames. E-mail addressed to an alias is automatically sent to the user(s) associated with that name.

Adoption levels. The proportion of the population/businesses that have access to the Internet, are influenced by it or purchase using it.

Agent. The term agent is used to describe a specialised program that automatically searches the Internet for information meeting a user’s requirements.

Alias. The process of sending e-mail messages to specific individuals or groups of users can be simplified by making use of aliases. An alias — sometimes known as a nickname — usually consists of a description and the e-mail addresses of those grouped under the alias.

Alpha release and alpha testing. Alpha releases are preliminary versions of the software released early in the build process. They usually have the majority of the functionality of the system in place, but may suffer from extensive bugs. The purpose of ‘alpha testing’ is to identify these bugs and any major problems with the functionality and usability of the software. Alpha testing is usually conducted by staff inside the organisation developing the software or by favoured customers.

Analogue. Analogue data is continuous in that an infinite number of values between two given points can be represented. As an example, the hands of a clock are able to represent every single possible time of the day.

Annotation. A note or message that can be attached to a document. Voice annotations are spoken messages that can be embedded within a document.

Anti-virus. An anti-virus is a benevolent virus program that copies itself to the boot sectors of unprotected floppy disks. If another virus attempts to overwrite the anti-virus, it displays a message on the screen warning the user of infection. See Computer virus.

Apple Macintosh. A family of personal computers produced by Apple Computers. Although less popular than IBM-compatible personal computers, the Apple Macintosh is widely used for professional desktop publishing applications, graphics and animation.

Applets. Small programs with limited functions typically running from within a web browser.

Applications backlog. An applications backlog occurs when the demand for new applications by users exceeds the capacity of the IS department or IS outsourcing company to develop them. Over a period of a year a large number of applications are in the queue of required new work.

Applications generator. An applications generator performs an action or creates a computer program based on a set of requirements given by the user. Many applications generators allow users to define a series of actions or requirements by arranging icons on a special design screen. The resulting design is then converted into a series of instructions or an executable program.

Applications portfolio. The range of different types of business information systems deployed within an organisation.

Artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial intelligence (AI) methods attempt to make a computer system behave in the same way a human being. One application for AI is in natural language processing, where users can communicate with a computer system using English-like statements.

Assembly language. Assembly language represented an attempt to simplify the process of creating computer programs. Symbols and abbreviations were used to create sequences of instructions. An assembler was used to translate a completed assembly language program into the machine code required by the computer.

Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL). A relatively new development in telecommunications, ADSL makes use of conventional telephone lines to provide extremely high data transmission rates.

Asynchronous. When collaborators send messages that can be accessed at a later time these are known as asynchronous. Asynchronous exchange occurs with e-mail or discussion groups.

Attributes of information quality. A group of characteristics by which the quality of information can be assessed. These attributes are normally grouped into three categories: time, content and form. Examples of attributes of information quality include accuracy, reliability and timeliness.

Audits. This describes the process of monitoring an organisation’s hardware and software resources. In general, audits are used as a deterrent against theft and the use of illegal software.

Autoresponder. This describes a program that automatically responds to incoming e-mail messages by scanning for key words or phrases and returning an appropriate reply.

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B

Backbones. High-speed communications links used to enable Internet communications across a country and internationally.

Back door. The back door is a section of program code that allows a user to circumvent security procedures in order to gain full access to an information system.

Backup site. A backup site houses a copy of the organisation’s main data processing facilities, including hardware, software and up-to-date data files. In the event of an emergency, processing can be switched to the backup site almost immediately so that the organisation’s work can continue.

Balanced scorecard. A framework for setting and monitoring business performance. Metrics are structured according to customer issues, internal efficiency measures, financial measures and innovation.

Bandwidth. The term bandwidth is often used to describe how many pieces of data can be transmitted or received at one time by a given device. Bandwidth is usually expressed in hertz (Hz) or in bits or bytes per second.

Banner. A rectangular graphic displayed on a web page for the purposes of advertising. It is normally possible to perform a click-through to access further information. Banners may be static or animated.

Bar code. A bar code is a means of displaying a unique identification number as a series of thick and thin lines. The sequence and width of the lines in the bar code can be translated into a sequence of digits. Bar code numbers are normally produced according to specific method. The Universal Product Code, for example, is a standard method for creating and using bar codes.

Bar code reader. A bar code reader measures the intensity of a light beam reflected from a printed bar code to identify the digits making up a unique identification number. The digits making up the identification number are also printed at the foot of the bar code. If a label containing a bar code becomes damaged or cannot be read for some other reason, it may still be possible to enter the identification number manually.

Batch processing. Data is ‘post-processed’ following collection, often at times when the workload on the system is lower. Batch processing usually occurs without user interaction as a ‘background job’.

Baud. A simple means of measuring the performance of a modem or other device. Early modems operated at speeds of 1200 baud, the equivalent of approximately 100 characters per second. Data transmission rates can also be expressed in bits per second (bps). In general, the higher the baud rate or bps value, the faster and more efficient the device.

Benchmarks. This describes the process of testing the performance of computer equipment. Having carried out a series of benchmark tests, the results can be compared against similar items in order to make the best selection.

Bespoke development. An IS is developed ‘from scratch’ by an IS professional to suit the business requirements of the application.

Beta release and beta testing. Beta releases occur after alpha testing and have almost complete functionality and relatively few bugs. Beta testing will be conducted by a range of customers who are interested in evaluating the new software. The aim of beta testing is to identify bugs in the software before it is shipped to a range of customers.

Big-bang changeover. Immediate cutover when a new system becomes operational and operations transfer immediately from the previous system.

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). Housed in a memory chip on the computer’s motherboard, the BIOS contains software that controls all of the computer’s most basic activities. It is the BIOS that allows the keyboard, display, hard disk drives, serial ports and other devices to function. The BIOS is stored in ROM so that it is always available and cannot be accidentally damaged or erased.

Bit. A single binary digit representing a (0) zero or a 1.

Bit map image. A bit map image is made up of small dots (pixels) arranged in a grid. The finer the grid, the higher the resolution of the image.

Bookmarks. All web browsers allow users to maintain a directory of WWW sites. The directory will enable users to add, edit, delete and organise addresses in the form of bookmarks.

Bottom-up design. The bottom-up approach to design starts with the design of individual modules, establishing their inputs and outputs and then builds an overall design from these modules.

Boundary. This describes the interface between a system and its environment. Everything within the boundary forms part of the system, everything outside the boundary forms part of the external environment.

Brainstorming. Uses the interaction between a group of staff to generate new ideas and discuss existing problems. It is the least structured of the fact-finding techniques.

Brand abuse. This describes a wide range of activities, ranging from the sale of counterfeit goods (e.g. software applications) to exploiting a well-known brand name for commercial gain.

British Computer Society (BCS). The British Computer Society is widely regarded as the UK’s leading professional association for those involved the management and development of computer-based information systems.

Bubble jet printer. A bubble jet printer works in similar manner to an inkjet printer, but transfers the character by melting the ink droplets onto the paper.

Bug. Software bugs are defects in a program which are caused by human error during programming or earlier in the lifecycle. They may result in major faults or may remain unidentified.

Bulk e-mailer. The use of mass e-mail programs, called bulk e-mailers, enables an organisation to issue documents, such as questionnaires, at a fraction of the cost of traditional methods.

Bus width. Describes how many pieces of data can be transmitted or received at one time by the bus connecting the processor to other components of the PC.

Business-aligning IS strategy. The IS strategy is used to support the business strategy.

Business-impacting IS strategy. The IS strategy is used to favourably impact the business strategy, perhaps by introducing new technologies.

Business information systems. This describes information systems used to support the functional areas of business. For example, an organisation might use specialised information systems to support sales, marketing and human resource management activities.

Business intelligence (BI) software. BI software is a general term used to describe analysis software which makes use of functions available in data warehouses, data marts and data mining.

Business model. A summary of how a company will generate revenue identifying its product offering, value-added services, revenue sources and target customers.

Business process automation (BPA). Automating existing ways of working manually through information technology.

Business process re-engineering (BPR). Identifying and implementing radical new ways of carrying out work, often enabled by new IT capabilities.

Business resource base. The resources that a company has available to it are known collectively as the business resource base. The business resource base is made up of physical and conceptual resources (also known as tangible and intangible assets).

Business rule. A rule defines the actions that need to occur in a business when a particular situation arises. For example a business rule may state that if a customer requests credit and they have a history of defaulting on payments, then credit will not be issued. A business rule is broken down into an event which triggers a rule with test conditions which result in defined actions.

Business Software Alliance (BSA). An organisation formed to act against software piracy. See Software theft.

Business-to-business (B2B). Commercial transactions are between an organisation and other organisations.

Business-to-consumer (B2C). Commercial transactions are between an organisation and consumers.

Buy-side e-commerce. E-commerce transactions between a purchasing organisation and its supplier.

Byte. Made up of eight bits and represents the amount of space required to hold a single character.

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Cache (browser). In order to increase the speed and efficiency with which a web browser functions, a temporary storage space is used to store copies of any pages that the user has viewed. If the user returns to a given location, the web browser retrieves the required page from the temporary storage space (known as a cache), rather than transfer a fresh copy from a remote computer.

Cache memory. In a computer system, cache memory is used to improve performance by anticipating the data and instructions that will be needed by the processor. The required data are retrieved and held in the cache, ready to be transferred directly to the processor when required.

Call centre. An office which is devoted to answering telephone enquiries from customers, call centres are commonly used for financial services and retail customer support.

Capacity loading graphs. Capacity loading graphs show the resources required to undertake activities in a project.

CD-R (CD-recordable). This describes a variation on the traditional CD-ROM. CDR drives can not only read conventional compact discs but can also write data to special ‘gold’ discs. Compact discs produced in this way are known as write-once discs, that is, once data has been stored on the disc it can not be altered or erased. See CD-ROM.

CD-ROM. A computer storage device offering a relatively high capacity. The acronym CD-ROM stands for compact disc — read only memory, denoting the fact that CD-ROM discs are read-only devices; data cannot be written to a CD-ROM by a conventional player.

CDRW. A more recent development in terms of compact disc storage are CD re-writable drives. In addition to providing the functionality of the CDR drive, the CDRW drive also allows the use of special compact disc media that can be written and erased many times. However, discs produced in this way are not compatible with standard CD-ROM drives and can only be used with a CDRW unit. See CDR and CD-ROM.

Central processing unit (CPU). This describes the microprocessor found in a computer system. The CPU controls all of the computer’s main functions and enables users to execute programs or process data.

Centralised IS management. Centralised IS management will involve the control of all IS services from a central location, typically in a company head office or data-centre.

CGI (common gateway interface). CGI offers a way of providing interactivity through the web. With a form-type HTML document, a user type in information and structured information or queries sent using the web.

Change (modification) requests. A modification to the software thought to be necessary by the business users or developers.

Changeover. The term used to describe moving from the old information system to the new information system.

Channels. Channels (sometimes described as netcasting) enable users to subscribe to particular sites on the Internet, in much the same way that one might subscribe to a newspaper or magazine. The use of channels allows both the user and the information provider to select the information to be sent and schedule its transmission.

Checksum digits. A checksum involves the use of an extra digit for ensuring the validity of long code numbers. The checksum digit is calculated from an algorithm involving the numbers in the code and their modulus (by convention modulus 11).

Chip theft. Chip theft describes a relatively new phenomenon involving the removal of small but valuable components from computers, such as memory modules and processors.

CISC. (complex instruction set computer) is a specific type of microprocessor which has a wide range of instructions to enable easy programming and efficient use of memory. CISC processors are best known as the Intel processors from 8086 to 80486 and the Motorola 68000 used in early Apple Macintoshes.

Client/server. The client/server architecture consists of client computers such as PC s sharing resources such as a database stored on a more powerful server computers. Processing can be shared between the clients and the servers.

Client/server model. This describes a system architecture in which end-user computers access data from more powerful server computers. Processing can be split in various ways between the server and client.

Closed questions. Closed questions have a restricted choice of answers such as Yes/No or a range of opinion on a scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree (Lickert scale). Approach is useful for quantitative analysis of results.

Closed system. No or limited interaction occurs with the environment.

Code of conduct. Members of professional associations, such as the British Computer Society, are expected to abide by a set of principles that set out minimum standards of competence, conduct and behaviour.

Cognitive style. This describes the way in which a manager absorbs information and reaches decisions. A manager’s cognitive style will fall between analytical and intuitive styles.

Comma-separated values (CSV). A CSV file is a simple text file made up of items enclosed within quotation marks and separated by commas. The use of commas and quotation marks enables a program reading the file to identify individual items.

Command line interpreter (CLI). A CLI is used to pass instructions from a user to a computer program. The CLI accepts instructions from a user in the form of brief statements entered via the keyboard.

Commercial languages. This category of programming languages is intended to create applications that meet the basic information processing requirements of business organisations.

Commoditisation. The process whereby product selection becomes more dependent on price than differentiating features, benefits and value-added services.

Compact disc (CD). This describes the media used by CD-ROM players. The data on a compact disc are encoded as a series of dips and raised areas. These two states represent binary data — the same number system used by microprocessors. The CD-ROM player shines a laser beam onto the surface of the disc and measures the light that is reflected back. The intensity of the light that is reflected back enables the player to distinguish individual binary digits. See CD-ROM.

Competitive advantage. In order to survive or expand, organisations must seek to gain dominance over their competitors in the marketplace. This can be achieved by using a variety of strategies to gain control of a market or prevent others from gaining control.

Compiler. The instructions that make up a computer program are often stored as a simple text file, usually called a source code file. A compiler produces an executable program by converting instructions held as source code into machine language.

Compound key. In a relational database, it is possible to retrieve data from several tables at once By using record keys in combination, often known as a compound key. See Record key and Primary key.

Computer-aided design (CAD). Provides interactive graphics that assist in the development of product and service designs. Connects to a database allowing designs to be recalled and developed easily.

Computer-aided manufacture (CAM). CAM involves the use of computers directly to control production equipment and indirectly to support manufacturing operations.

Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools. CASE tools are software which helps the systems analyst and designer in the analysis, design and build phases of a software project. They provide tools for drawing diagrams such as ERDs and storing information about processes, entities and attributes.

Computer criminals. In general, computer criminals are well-educated, white-collar workers who feel undervalued or bear some resentment to an employer or former employer. Computer criminals make use of technology to perform a variety of criminal acts, ranging from vandalism and sabotage to hacking and fraud.

Computer Misuse Act (1990). This legislation is intended to protect sensitive equipment and data from unauthorised access, alteration and damage.

Computer monitoring. The use of computer and communications technology to monitor the activities of individuals.

Computer network. A computer network can be defined as: ‘a communications system that links two or more computers and peripheral devices and enables transfer of data between the components’.

Computer output to microfilm (COM). COM, also known as computer output microfilm, is often used to archive large quantities of information for future reference. Information is processed via a personal computer and sent directly to a device that produces microfilm negatives.

Computer system. A computer system consists of a number of interrelated components that work together with the aim of converting data into information. In a computer system, processing is carried out electronically, usually with little or no intervention from a human user. The components of a computer system include hardware and software.

Computer virus. A computer virus is a computer program that is capable of self-replication, allowing it to spread from one ‘infected’ machine to another.

Computer-based information system. This describes an information system that makes use of information technology in order to create management information.

Conceptual resources. Conceptual resources describe the non-physical resources owned by a company. Conceptual resources are also known as intangible assets. Examples include knowledge, experience and judgement.

Configuration management. Procedures which define the process of building a version of the software from its constituent program files and data files.

Constructive cost model (COCOMO). A model used to estimate the amount of effort required to complete a project on the basis of the estimated number of lines of program code.

Contact manager. This describes a software application that can be used to maintain lists of information relating to customers, suppliers and other important individuals or organisations.

Content. Content is the design, text and graphical information which forms a web page.

Content dimension. This describes several characteristics of information quality related to the scope and contents of the information. Amongst these characteristics are the accuracy, relevance and conciseness of information. As an example, information may be considered to be of high quality if it is accurate. Other dimensions of information characteristics include time and form. See Time dimension, Form dimension.

Context diagrams. A simplified diagram which is useful for specifying the boundaries and scope of the system. They can be readily produced after the information flow diagram since they are a simplified version of the IFD showing the external entities.

Control. If alterations are needed to the system, adjustments are made by some form of control mechanism. The function of a control mechanism is to ensure that the system is working to fulfil its objective.

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1988). Legislation that can be used to provide organisations and software developers with protection against unauthorised copying of designs, software, printed materials and other works.

Copy protection. This describes a number of methods that can be used to prevent unauthorised copies being made of a software package.

Core competencies. Resources, including skills or technologies that provide a particular benefit to customers.

Cost of ownership. The cost of ownership describes a range of different expenses incurred by purchasing and maintaining a computer system. Such costs include the original cost of the hardware and software, upgrades, maintenance, technical support and training.

Cost per megabyte. The cost per megabyte presents a simple means of gauging the costs associated with a given storage device.

Cost per page. The cost per page provides a simple means of determining the overall running costs of a given printer. The figures given usually refer to the costs of consumables such as ink and replacement components (toner cartridges, drums and so on).

Countermediation. Creation of a new intermediary by an established company.

Coupling. Defines how closely linked different subsystems are. Loose coupling means that the modules pass only the minimum of information between them and do not share data and program code. Close-coupled systems are highly dependent on each other.

CPM. Cost for advertising is specified as CPM or cost per thousand page impressions.

Cracker. A person who gains access to an information system for malicious reasons is often termed a cracker rather than a hacker. This is because some people draw a distinction between ‘ethical’ hackers and malicious hackers.

Critical path. Activities on the critical path are termed critical activities. Any delay in these activities will cause a delay in the project completion time.

Critical path method (CPM). Critical path diagrams show the relationship between activities in a project.

Critical success factors (CSFs). CSFs are measures which indicate the performance or efficiency of different parts of an organisation.

Cross-licensing agreement. Cross-licensing agreements allow companies to share patents so that each can produce and market a wider range of products. See Patent.

Customer relationship management (CRM). CRM involves a company forming a long-term business relationship with its customers for mutual benefit. The essential aim of CRM is to improve customer service without harming company profitability. Typically, information technology is used to obtain and analyse information on customer behaviour. Such an analysis might result in various actions, such as improving the products and services offered to customers.

Customer value. Dependent on product quality, service quality, price and fulfilment time.

Cybermall. A single web site which gives online access to goods from a range of shops in a similar way to how physical shopping malls enable shoppers to make purchases in one location.

Cybersquatting. The act of registering an Internet domain with the intention of selling it for profit to an interested party. As an example, the name of a celebrity might be registered and then offered for sale at an extremely high price.

Cyberspace. The prefix cyber indicate a blurring in distinction between humans, machines and communications. Cyberspace is a synonym for Internet.

Cyberstalking. This refers to the use of the Internet as a means of harassing another individual. A related activity is known as corporate stalking, where an organisation uses its resources to harass individuals or business competitors.

Cyberterrorism. This describes attacks made on information systems that are motivated by political or religious beliefs.

D

Daisywheel printer. The daisywheel printer functions in much the same way as a conventional typewriter. Characters are mounted on hammers arranged in the shape of a wheel. The wheel is rotated until the correct character is in the correct position for printing. As one of the earliest forms of printing technology, daisywheel printers are considered slow and noisy. However, they are also considered inexpensive and reliable. It should be noted that daisywheel printers are unable to print graphics.

Data. Data can be described as a series of facts that have been obtained by observation or research and recorded.

Data dictionary. A repository which is used to store the details of the entities of the database. It will define tables, relations and field details which are sometimes referred to as metadata or ‘data about data’.

Data entry form. In an electronic database, a data entry form provides a convenient means of viewing, entering, editing and deleting records.

Data marts. These are small-scale data warehouses which do not hold information across an entire company, but rather focus on one department.

Data migration. Data migration is the transfer of data from the old system to the new system. When data are added to a database, this is known as populating the database.

Data mining. This involves searching organisational databases in order to uncover hidden patterns or relationships in groups of data. Data mining software attempts to represent information in new ways so that previously unseen patterns or trends can be identified.

Data modelling. Data modelling involves considering how to represent data objects within a system, both logically and physically. The entity relationship diagram is used to model the data.

Data process. A process used to convert data into information. Examples include summarising, classifying and sorting.

Data processing. This describes the process of handling the large volumes of data that arise from an organisation’s daily activities. Although data processing describes a wide range of activities, the most common are transaction processing and process control.

Data processing (DP) department. The data processing (DP) department was a term commonly used in the 1970s and 1980s to describe the functional area responsible for management of what is now referred to as information systems and applications development. It is interesting to note that the term focuses on the processing of data rather than the application of information. The head of this department was referred to as DP manager rather than Chief Information Officer or IS manager.

Data Protection Act (1984). This legislation sets out to define the rights of organisations and individuals in terms of how personal information is gathered, stored, processed and disclosed. One of the most important aspects of the Act is a focus on the individual’s rights to view the information stored on them and ensure that it is accurate.

Data validation. Data validation is a process to ensure the quality of data by checking they have been entered correctly.

Data warehouses. Data warehouses are large database systems (often measured in gigabytes or terabytes) containing detailed company data on sales transactions which are analysed to assist in improving the marketing and financial performance of companies.

Data theft. Data theft can involve stealing sensitive information or making unauthorised changes to computer records. See also Software theft and Theft.

Data transfer rate. In terms of storage devices, the data transfer rate describes how quickly a device is able to read continuous blocks of data. This figure is normally expressed in terms of kilobytes or megabytes.

Data views. Different screens of an application which review information in a different form such as table, graph, report or map

Database. A database can be defined as a collection of related information. The information held in the database is stored in an organised way so that specific items can be selected and retrieved quickly. See Database management system.

Database management system (DBMS). The information held in an electronic database is accessed via a database management system. A DBMS can be defined as one or more computer programs that allow users to enter, store, organise, manipulate and retrieve data from a database. For many users, the terms database and database management system are interchangeable. A relational database management system (RDBMS) is an extension of a DBMS and allows data to be combined from a variety of sources.

Dataflow diagrams (DFD). Define the different processes in a system and the information which forms the input and output datastores to the processes. They may be drawn at different levels. Level 0 provides an overview of the system with levels 1 and 2 providing progressively more detail.

Decentralised IS management. Decentralised IS management involves management of some services in individual operating companies or at regional offices.

Decision behaviour. Describes the way in which people make decisions.

Decision support systems. Decision support systems provide managers with information needed to support semi-structured or unstructured decisions.

Decision table. A matrix showing all the alternative outcomes of different decisions which occur when certain input conditions occur.

Decision tree. A diagram showing the sequence of events, decisions and consequent actions that occur in a decision making process.

Deletion anomaly. It is not possible to delete a record from a relation without also losing some other information which might still be required.

Denial of service (DoS). This is a form of attack on company information systems that involves flooding the company’s Internet servers with huge amounts of traffic. Such attacks effectively halt all of the company’s Internet activities until the problem is dealt with.

Deployment plan. A deployment plan is a schedule which defines all the tasks that need to occur in order for changeover to occur successfully. This includes putting in place all the infrastructure such as cabling and hardware.

Desktop computer. The desktop computer is intended for office use and supports the day-to-day activities of an organisation’s employees. These machines tend to be placed in a fixed location and connected permanently to items such as printers, scanners and other devices. The desktop computer is the most common type of microcomputer and is found in the majority of organisations.

Detailed design. Detailed design involves the specification of how an individual component of a system will function in terms of its data input and output, user interface and security.

Development programs. Development programs allow users to develop their own software in order to carry out processing tasks.

Dial-up networking (DUN). Dial-up networking software allows users to access a network at a remote location via a modem. Most home computer users, for example, access the Internet via dial-up networking.

Dialog. An onscreen window (box) which is used by a user to input data or select options.

Digital. Digital data can only represent a finite number of discrete values. For example, at the most basic level, a computer recognises only the values 0 (zero) and 1. Any values between 0 and 1, for example 0.15, cannot be represented.

Digital audio tape (DAT). A storage medium that combines some of the characteristics of magnetic tape and compact disc. Digital audio tape couples high storage capacities with improved speed and reliability.

Digital camera. A digital camera captures and stores still images in much the same way as a traditional camera. Images are held in the camera’s memory or stored on disk until they can be transferred to a personal computer. The image is recorded using a charge-coupled device which recognises the different colours and intensity of light in the image.

Digital certificates. A method of ensuring privacy on the Internet. Certificates consist of a private key for encrypting data or documents and a corresponding public key for reading the data. An independent certification authority issues public and private keys. Basis for SET.

Digital ID. A digital ID provides a means of confirming the identity of a specific user through the use of a small data file called a personal certificate. The certificate contains encrypted information relating to the user’s identity.

Digital versatile disc (DVD). Although superficially similar to CD-ROM, DVD devices offer two important benefits to users. First, the discs used by a DVD player offer extremely high storage capacities, typically between 4 Gb and 7 Gb. Secondly, data held on DVD can be accessed at very high speeds. One of the most common applications for DVD as a distribution medium for full-length feature films. See CD-ROM.

Disaster recovery company. These maintain copies of important data on behalf of an organisation. They may also provide a service which can immediately supply replacement systems.

Disintermediation. The removal of intermediaries such as distributors or brokers that formerly linked a company to its customers.

Direct capture. This describes a method of acquiring and storing data automatically with little or no human intervention. As an example, the sensors on an automated production line can be described as direct capture devices.

Direct file access. Random or direct file access allows any record to be read or written.

Document image processing (DIP). DIP systems are used in industry to convert printed documents into an electronic format so that they can be stored, organised and retrieved more easily.

Documentation. Software documentation refers to end-user guidance such as the user guide and technical maintenance documentation such as design and test specifications.

Documentation review. Uses information on existing systems such as user guides, or requirements specifications together with paper or on-screen forms used to collect information such as sales order forms.

Domain name. Refers to the name of the web server and is usually selected to be the same as the name of the company and the extension will indicate its type. The extension is also commonly known as the Global Top Level Domain (gTLD).

http://www.domain-name.extension/filename.htm

Dongle. This describes a hardware device used to prevent unauthorised copies of a program being made. The hardware ‘key’ must be connected to the computer in order for the software to function.

Dot-matrix printer. The dot-matrix printer arranges a series of pins to form the shape of a required character. The character is transferred to the paper by striking the pins against an ink ribbon. The greater the number of pins used, the more detailed the character can be produced. As one of the earliest forms of printing technology, dot-matrix printers are considered slow and noisy. However, they are also considered inexpensive and reliable.

Dot-pitch. This describes a common method of gauging the quality of a monitor’s display and involves measuring the distance — known as the dot-pitch — between the pixels on the screen. The smaller the distance between pixels, the finer the image will appear.

Dots per inch (DPI). The quality of a printer’s output is normally measured in dots per inch. This describes the number of individual dots that can be printed within a space of one square inch. Quality is normally compared against professional typesetting, such as the equipment used to produce a book or magazine.

Dynamic systems development methodology (DSDM). A methodology which describes how RAD can be approached.

Dynamic web page. A page that is created in real time, often with reference to a database query, in response to a user request.

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Early adopter. Early adopters are companies or departments that invest in new technologies when they first become available in an attempt to gain a competitive advantage despite the risk in deploying new systems.

Economic feasibility. An assessment of the costs and benefits of different solutions to select that which gives the best value. (Will the new system cost more than the expected benefits?)

Editing. The process of entering or correcting text is known as editing.

Effort time. Effort time is the total amount of work that needs to occur to complete a task.

EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture). This describes a common standard governing the way in which an expansion card interacts with a computer’s motherboard and CPU. See Expansion card and Motherboard.

Elapsed time. Elapsed time indicates how long in time (such as calendar days) the task will take (duration).

Electronic business. All electronically mediated information exchanges, both within an organisation and with external stakeholders, supporting the range of business processes.

Electronic commerce. Transactions of goods or services for which payment occurs over the Internet or other wide-area networks.

Electronic data interchange (EDI). The electronic exchange of information between businesses using wide-area network. EDI transactions transfer structured data such as an electronic payment and also documents.

Electronic document management software (EDMS). Systems that convert documents into a digital format which allows storage, retrieval and manipulation of the document on computer.

Electronic eavesdropping. This describes the act of gaining access to confidential information by intercepting or monitoring communications traffic. See also Computer monitoring.

Electronic funds transfer. Automated digital transmission of money between organisations and banks.

Electronic mail (e-mail). E-mail can be defined as the transmission of a message over a communications network.

Electronic meeting systems. This describes a category of office automation systems that seek to improve communications between individuals and groups. Examples of these systems include those that support teleconferencing, teleworking and groupwork. See Office automation systems.

Electronic publishing systems. This describes a category of office automation systems that supports the production of documents, such as letters, reports and catalogues. Some of the typical programs used include word processors and desktop publishing packages. See Office automation systems.

End-user computing (EUC). End-user computing includes all uses of computers by business people who are not information systems professionals. This may range from use of business applications through spreadsheet modelling to developing programs to solve specific problems.

End-user development (EUD). End-user development is programming undertaken by non-IS staff. It typically involves development of small applications for solving departmental problems rather than cross-departmental applications.

End-user IT services. These include all services required to support end-users in running their PCs and applications.

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software. A software system with integrated functions for all major business functions across an organisation such as production, distribution, sales, finance and human resources management. It is normally purchased as an off-the-shelf package which is tailored by a consultant. A single package typically replaces many different previous packages.

Environment. This describes the surroundings of a system. The environment of a system can contain other systems and external agencies.

EPROM (eraseable programmable read-only memory). This is a form of ROM that retains its contents until changed using a special device known as a ‘burner’. See Read-only memory.

Error rate. In many cases, it may be acceptable if an input device generates a certain number of errors. This is often referred to as the error rate and the acceptable level will vary according to the input device being used and the business application. Optical character recognition, for example, is generally considered a comparatively unreliable means of entering data. At present, a typical OCR software package will have an error rate of between five and ten per cent.

Errors per KLOC. Errors per KLOC (thousands of line of code) is the basic defect measure used in systems development.

Estimation. Estimation allows the project manager to plan for the resources required for project execution through establishing the number and size of tasks that need to be completed in the project.

Ethics. In general terms, ethics describes beliefs concerning right and wrong that can be used by individuals to guide their behaviour. See Morality and Professionalism.

Executive information systems. These systems are used by senior management to select, retrieve and manage information that can be used to support the achievement of an organisation’s business objectives. They need not be directly concerned with decision-making activities, but can help senior managers to become more efficient and productive in a number of other ways, for example by helping them to manage their time more efficiently.

Expansion card. Expansion cards can be used to extend a computer’s capabilities by adding new devices to the system. An expansion card usually takes the form of a small circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot on the computer’s motherboard. Some examples of expansion cards include modems, graphics cards and sound cards.

Expert systems. Expert systems are used to represent the knowledge decision-making skills of specialists so that non-specialists can take decisions. They encapsulate the knowledge of experts by providing tools for the acquisition of knowledge and representation of rules and their enactment as decisions.

Explicit knowledge. Knowledge that can be readily expressed and recorded within information systems.

Export. The process of saving a file in a format compatible with another software package is known as exporting.

Extensible markup language. See XML.

Extranet. An intranet with restricted access which is extended to suppliers, collaborators or customers.

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F

Fax-modem. A fax-modem combines the capabilities of a modem with the ability to send and receive fax transmissions.

Fax-on-demand. A service that allows users to select from a range of documents by using the keys on the telephone handset. Once a document has been selected, the system automatically telephones the user’s fax machine and transmits the document.

Feasibility study. The feasibility study is the activity that occurs at the start of the project to ensure that the project is a viable business proposition. The feasibility report analyses the need for and impact of the system and considers different alternatives for acquiring software. Input: Idea for initiation of a new information system. Output: Feasibility report and recommendation to proceed.

Federation against Software Theft (FAST). An organisation formed to act against software piracy. See Software theft.

Feedback. A feedback mechanism provides information on the performance of a system. An example of feedback might include quality control measurements taken on a production line.

Feedback control. In feedback closed-loop control systems the control loop compares the output of the process to the desired output and if a difference is found, adjusts the input or process accordingly.

Feedforward control. Feedforward incorporates a prediction element in the control feedback loop.

Field. The data in an electronic database is organised by fields and records. A field is a single item of information, such as a name or a quantity.

File attachment. E-mail messages can be used to transmit data files to other users. Files can be attached to messages and transmitted in the usual way. All types of data can be sent in this way including word processor files, spreadsheet data, graphics and database files.

Filter. In a spreadsheet or database, a filter can be used to remove data from the screen temporarily. This allows users to work with a specific group of records. Filters do not alter or delete data but simply hide any unwanted items.

Financial EDI. Aspect of electronic payment mechanism involving transfer of funds from the bank of a buyer to a seller.

Firewalls. This is a specialised software application mounted on a server at the point the company is connected to the Internet. Its purpose is to prevent unauthorised access into the company from outsiders. Firewalls are essential for all companies hosting their own web server.

First normal form (1NF). Transforming unnormalised data into its first normal form state involves the removal of repeating groups of data.

Flat file database. A flat file database can be described as being self-contained since it contains only one type of record — or table — and cannot access data held in other database files.

Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). A group of machines with programmable controllers linked by an automated materials handling system and integrated by an IS that enables a variety of parts with similar processing requirements to be manufactured.

Floppy disk. Consists of a plastic disk, coated with a magnetic covering and enclosed within a rigid plastic case.

Font. The typeface used in a document is referred to as the font. The size of the characters used is referred to as the point size.

Foreign (secondary) key fields. These fields are used to link tables together by referring to the primary key in another database table.

Form. An on-screen equivalent of a paper form which is used for entering data and will have validation routines to help improve the accuracy of the entered data.

Formal communication. Formal communication involves presenting information in a structured and consistent manner. Such information is normally created for a specific purpose, making it likely to be more comprehensive, accurate and relevant than information transmitted using information communication. An example of formal communication is an accounting statement. See Informal communication.

Form dimension. This describes several characteristics of information quality related to how the information is presented to the recipient. Amongst these characteristics are clarity, level of detail and the order of information. As an example, information may be considered to be of high quality if it is presented in a clear and consistent fashion (clarity). Other dimensions of information characteristics include time and content. See Time dimension, Content dimension.

Formula. In a spreadsheet, a formula is a calculation that is entered by the user and performed automatically by the spreadsheet program.

Free-form database. A free-form database allows users to store information in the form of brief notes or passages of text. Each item held can be placed within a category or assigned one or more key words. Information is organised and retrieved by using categories or key words.

FTP file transfer. The file transfer protocol is used as a standard for moving files across the Internet. The most common use is for releasing fixes to software applications. Documents can be transferred by this means. FTP is available as a feature of web browsers for downloading files.

Function. In a spreadsheet, a function is a built-in command that carries out a calculation or action automatically.

Functional testing. Testing of particular functions or modules either following a test script or working through the module systematically.

Functionality. A term used to describe whether software has the features necessary to support the business requirements.

Function point analysis. A method of estimating the time it will take to build a system by counting up the number of functions and data inputs and outputs and then comparing to completed projects.

Full backup. A method of producing backup copies of important data files. A full backup includes all data files considered to be important. See also Incremental backup.

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Gantt charts. Show the duration of parallel and sequential activities in a project as horizontal bars on a chart.

GIF (graphics interchange format). A graphics format and compression algorithm best used for simple graphics.

Gigabyte (Gb). A measure of storage capacity. Approximately 1000 Mb, of the equivalent of one billion characters.

Geographical Information System (GIS). Uses maps to display information about different geographic locations such as catchments or branches. They are commonly used for performance analysis by marketing staff.

Global business. The global business is a company that operates in several countries and uses information technology to assist in the control of operation and performance in each country.

Goal seeking. In a spreadsheet, goal seeking describes a way of automatically changing the values in a formula until a desired result is achieved.

Grandfather, father, son. A common procedure used for creating backup copies of important data files.

Graphics accelerator card. A type of graphics card containing its own memory and featuring a coprocessor. The coprocessor reduces the burden placed on the CPU by taking over the intensive calculations needed to produce complex graphical displays.

Graphics tablet. A graphics tablet is used in the same way as a writing pad. A stylus is used to draw images on a rigid pad located near to the computer. As the user draws with the stylus, the image is duplicated on the computer’s display.

Graphical user interface (GUI). A graphical user interface allows the user to control the operation of a computer program or item of computer hardware using a pointing device, such as a mouse. In general, commands are issued by selecting items from menus, buttons and icons.

Groupware. Software which enables information and decision making to be shared by people collaborating within and between businesses.

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Hacker. Hackers are often described as individuals who seek to break into systems as a test of their abilities. Few hackers attempt to cause damage to systems they access and few are interested in gaining any sort of financial profit.

Hardware. Describes the physical components of a computer system. The hardware of a computer system can be said to consist of: input devices, memory, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices.

Hard data. See Quantitative data.

Hard disk. A magnetic media that stores data upon a number of rigid platters that are rotated at very high speeds.

Hierarchical systems. Systems that are hierarchical in nature, being made up of subsystems that may themselves be made up of other subsystems.

Hierarchy of strategies. Sub-strategies developed to help achieve corporate objectives.

Hits. A measure of individual files delivered to the browser when requesting a URL. Hits usually overstate access to a web page. Page-impressions and ad-impressions are more accurate.

Hot plugging. This describes the ability to add or remove new devices whilst the computer is running and have the operating system automatically recognise any changes made.

HTML (hypertext markup language). HTML is the method used to create web pages and documents. The HTML code used to construct pages has codes or tags such as <TITLE> to indicate to the browser what is displayed.

Human activity system. A human activity system can be defined as a ‘notional system (i.e. not existing in any tangible form) where human beings are undertaking some activities that achieve some purpose’.

Human—computer interaction (HCI) design. HCI involves the study of methods for designing the input and output of information systems to ensure they are ‘user-friendly’.

Hypertext. Hypertext is highlighted words or phrases that represent links to other documents activated by clicking the mouse.

Hypertext database. In a hypertext database information is stored as series of objects and can consist of text, graphics, numerical data and multimedia data. Any object can be linked to any other, allowing users to store disparate information in an organised manner.

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IBM-compatible. The modern personal computer found in most business organisations developed from a family of personal computers launched by IBM in the early 1980s. The IBM-compatible computer is considered the standard for general business use.

If Then Else statement. These are common within programs since they govern the different actions taken by the program according to a condition. They are usually in the form:

IF Condition Then.
  Action if condition is TRUE
Else.
  Action if condition is FALSE
End If.

Image processing systems. This describes a category of office automation systems that allows users to create, edit, store and retrieve documents in electronic format. Document image processing (DIP) is an example of an image processing systems. See Office automation systems.

Immediate cutover (big-bang) changeover. Immediate cutover is when a new system becomes operational and operations transfer immediately from the previous system.

Import. The process of loading a file created with another package is known as importing

Incremental backup. A method of producing backup copies of important data files. An incremental backup includes only those files that have changed in some way since the last backup was made. See Full backup.

Index. In an electronic database, an index stores information concerning the order of the records in the database. The index lists the locations of records but does not alter the actual order of the database.

Informal communication. This describes information that is transmitted by informal means, such as casual conversations between members of staff. The information transmitted in this way is often less structured and less detailed than information transmitted by formal communication. In addition, the information may be inconsistent or may contain inaccuracies. Furthermore, the information may also include a subjective element, such as personal opinions. See Formal communication.

Information. Data that have been processed so that they are meaningful.

Information centre (IC). An IC is a central facility in an organisation which provides end-user services such as phone support for troubleshooting end-user software and hardware problems, training, guidance on end-user development and management of user information.

Information flow diagram (IFD). A simple diagram showing how information is routed between different parts of an organisation. It has an information focus rather than a process focus.

Information kiosk. A multimedia system usually integrated with a touch screen to provide information for retail or community applications such as libraries or local government is known as information kiosk.

Information leadership. Information leadership involves enhancing a product or service with an organisation’s specialised information or expertise. In many cases, organisations achieve information leadership by selling information or expertise in the form of a separate product. A good example might be selling a mailing list created from an organisation’s customer database.

Information need. The object of producing information is to meet a specific purpose or requirement.

Information reporting systems. These systems are used to generate reports containing information that can be used to support managerial decision making.

Information society. The information society is a term that has been coined to describe a modern population that is conversant with — and reliant upon — information and communications technology.

Information system. This describes a system designed to produce information that can be used to support the activities of managers and other workers.

Information systems acquisition. Acquisition describes the method of obtaining an information system for a business. The main choices are off-the-shelf (packaged), bespoke applications developed by an in-house IT department or a software house, and end-user developed systems.

Information systems strategy. Determination of the most appropriate processes and resources to ensure that information provision supports business strategy.

Information technology strategy. Determination of the most appropriate technological infrastructure comprising hardware, networks and software applications.

Information warrior. Information warriors seek to obtain data by any means necessary. Such people may resort to illegal methods, such as hacking, in order to obtain the information they require. However, the information obtained may not necessarily be used in pursuit of criminal activities.

Initiation phase. The startup phase in an IS development project. Its aims are to establish whether the project is feasible and then prepare to ensure the project is successful. Input: Creative thought and/or systematic evaluation of IS needs. Output: Idea for initiation of a new information system.

Inkjet printer. An inkjet printer uses a print-head containing 50 or more small nozzles. Each nozzle can be controlled individually by electrostatic charges produced by the printer. Characters are formed by squirting small droplets of directly onto the paper. Inkjets are considered relatively inexpensive, near silent in operation and capable of producing good quality results. It should be noted that inkjet printers also represent an economical means of printing in colour.

Input. The input to a system can be thought of as the raw materials for a process that will produce a particular output. Examples of inputs might include data, knowledge, raw materials, machinery and premises.

Input design. Input design includes the design of user input through on-screen forms, but also other methods of data entry such as import by file, transfer from another system or specialised data capture methods such as bar-code scanning and optical or voice recognition techniques.

Input device. Input devices are used to enter data, information or instructions into a computer-based information system.

Insertion anomaly. It is not possible to insert a new occurrence record into a relation (table) without having to also insert one into another relation first.

Intangible assets. Intangible assets describe the non-physical resources owned by a company. Intangible assets are also known as conceptual resources. Examples include knowledge, experience and judgement.

Intangible value. A value or benefit that is difficult or impossible to quantify.

Intellectual property. Intellectual property is a generic term used to describe designs, ideas and inventions. In general, intellectual property covers the following areas: patents, trade marks, designs and copyright.

Intelligent agent. An intelligent agent is a semi-autonomous computer program capable of carrying out one or more tasks specified by the user. You can think of an intelligent agent as a software ‘robot’ capable of being programmed to carry out a wide variety of tasks.

Interoperability. A general term used to describe how easily different components of a system can be integrated.

Interactive kiosk. A typical application for touch screen systems, an interactive kiosk allows a user to purchase items or browse through a list of products by pressing buttons or other controls shown on the screen. Such kiosks are often found in banks, music stores and large catalogue stores. Many bookings systems, such as those used by airlines, theatres and travel agents, also make use of touch screens. See Touch screen.

Interdependence. Interdependence means that a change to one part of a system leads to or results from changes to one or more other parts.

Interface. In terms of systems, the interface describes the exchanges between a system and its environment or the system and other systems. In the field of information technology, the interface describes ways in which information is exchanged between users and computer software or hardware.

Interlaced. An interlaced display is one where each complete image shown on a monitor’s display is drawn in two steps. A non-interlaced monitor refreshes the display in a single pass. A good-quality monitor is normally capable of supporting a non-interlaced display at a refresh rate of 70 Hz or more.

Internal rate of return (IRR). A discounted cash flow technique used to assess the return of a project by considering the interest rate which would produce an NPV of zero.

Internet. The Internet refers to the physical network that links computers across the globe. It consists of the infrastructure of servers and communication links between them which is used to hold and transport the vast amount of information on the Internet.

Internet EDI. Use of EDI data standards delivered across non-proprietary Internet protocol networks.

Internet pure-plays. A company trading online that has limited or no physical presence such as retail units.

Internet relay chat (IRC). This is a synchronous communications tool which allows a text-based ‘chat’ between different users who are logged on at the same time. It is not used for many business applications since asynchronous discussions are more practical — not all team members need to be present at the same time.

Internet service provider (ISP). Companies which provide access to the Internet and web page hosting for home and business users. Online service providers give access to the Internet plus their own content.

Interpreted. An interpreted computer program can be run directly, without the need for compilation. As the program runs, each instruction is taken in turn and converted into machine language by a command interpreter.

Interstitial. A small, rectangular area within a web page used for advertising. May be animated or static.

Interviewing. Recommended practice: a range of staff are interviewed using structured techniques to identify features and problems of the current system and required features of the future system.

Intranet. An intranet uses web servers, browsers and e-mail within a company to share company information and software applications. The intranet is only accessible to company employees.

IP address. The unique numerical address of a computer.

ISA (Industry Standard Architecture). This describes a common standard governing the way in which an expansion card interacts with a computer’s motherboard and CPU. See Expansion card and Motherboard.

ISDN (integrated services digital network). ISDN represents a standard for communications that allows data transfer rates that are up to five times faster than a 56 600 bps modem. An ISDN telephone line provides two separate ‘channels’ allowing simultaneous voice and data transmissions. Since ISDN lines transmit digital data, a modem is not required to make use of the service. Instead, a special terminal adapter (often called an ISDN modem) is used to pass data between the computer and the ISDN line. See Modem and Baud rate.

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Java. An object-oriented programming language standard supported by Sun Microsystems which permits complex and graphical customer applications to be written and then accessed from a web browser. An example might be a form for calculating interest on a loan. A competitor to Active-X.

Javascript. A simple scripting programming language, which offers a subset of the features of the Java programming language.

JPEG (joint photographics experts group). A graphics format and compression algorithm best used for photographs.

Justification. In a word processor, the alignment of text with the left and right margins can be controlled by specifying the justification. Text can be left-justified, right-justified or fully justified.

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K

Kilobyte (kb). A measure of storage capacity. Approximately 1000 bytes, or the equivalent of 1000 characters.

Knowledge. Applying managerial experience to problem solving. See Explicit knowledge and Tacit knowledge.

Knowledge management. Techniques and tools for collecting, managing and disseminating knowledge within an organisation.

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L

Label printers. These are small units specifically designed to print on rolls of self-adhesive labels. Although various kinds of label printer exist, one of the most common types is used for printing bar codes.

Laser printer. The laser printer is commonly used for business applications requiring a combination of speed with high print quality.

Legacy system. When a new computer-based information system is developed, it may be necessary to retain hardware — but more often software — from the earlier system. In these cases, the software that has been retained is referred to as a legacy system.

Lightpen. A lightpen is a pointing device that can be used to control applications by pointing to items on the screen. Lightpens are also used for applications involving graphics, such as drawing packages, since images can be drawn directly onto the screen. See Pointing device.

Line printer. A line printer processes a document one line at a time. In contrast, a page printer processes a document one entire page at a time.

Live (production) environment. The term used to described the setup of the system (hardware, software and office environment) where the software will be used in the business.

Local-area network (LAN). A LAN is a computer network that spans a limited geographic area, typically a single office or building. A LAN consists of a single network segment or several connected segments which are limited in extent.

Logic bomb. Sometimes also known as a time bomb, a logic bomb is a destructive computer program that activates at a certain time or in reaction to a specific event.

Low-level language. A low-level programming language requires the programmer to work directly with the hardware of the computer system. Instructions are normally entered in machine code or assembly language.

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Machine language. This describes the natural language of a computer. Machine language instructions are made up of binary digits and use only the values of 0 (zero) and 1.

Machine-oriented. A machine-oriented programming language focuses on the requirements of the computer hardware being used, where programs are produced in a form that suits the way in which the microprocessor functions.

Macro. A macro is a sequence of instructions that can be used to automate complex or repetitive tasks. Macros can be used to emulate a sequence of keys pressed on the keyboard or can be programmed so that they can carry out more complicated processes.

Macro-environment. Wider environment of social, legal, economic, political and technological influences.

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR). This involves capturing data that have been printed using a special magnetic ink. This technology is normally associated with the banking industry, especially cheque processing. Some of the details on a cheque, such as the cheque number, are printed a special typeface using magnetic ink. The shape of each character means that it can be recognised by its magnetic field.

Mainframe. A traditional view of computing saw three main categories of computers: mainframes, minicomputers and microcomputers. Mainframes were considered the most powerful computers and were used for large-scale data processing.

Management information systems. These systems provide feedback on organisational activities and help to support managerial decision making.

Materials requirements planning (MRP) software. MRP software is used to plan the production of goods in a manufacturing organisation by obtaining components, scheduling operations and controlling production. MRP II integrates the information system with other functional areas in the business such as finance and marketing.

McFarlan’s strategic grid. This model is used to indicate the strategic importance of information systems to a company now and in the future.

Megabyte (Mb). A measure of storage capacity. Approximately 1000 kb, or the equivalent of one million characters.

Megapixel. A measurement that is often used to describe the quality of the image captured by a digital camera. A megapixel represents one million individual picture elements — the dots that make up an image. Early digital cameras produced images at a quality of 0.5 megapixels. Modern devices can produce images at a quality of 3.5 megapixels or higher.

Memory. Computer memory is used as a temporary means of storing data and instructions. Memory is used to store data awaiting processing, instructions used to process data or control the computer system, and data or information that has been processed.

Metadata. Reference data describing the structure and content of data in a data warehouse are known as metadata.

Milestone. This denotes a significant event in the project such as completion of a prototype.

Minicomputer. A traditional view of computing saw three main categories of computers: mainframes, minicomputers and microcomputers. Minicomputers offered an intermediate stage between the power of mainframe systems and the relatively low cost of microcomputer systems.

Microcomputer. A traditional view of computing saw three main categories of computers: mainframes, minicomputers and microcomputers. Microcomputers were considered less powerful than other types of computer but were more flexible and relatively inexpensive to purchase.

Micro-environment. Immediate environment including customers, competitors, suppliers and distributors.

Middleware. A type of software that acts as a layer between other software to assist in data transfer between incompatible systems.

Modelling. Modelling involves creating a numerical representation of an existing situation or set of circumstances, whilst simulation involves predicting new situations or circumstances. In both cases, a model is produced that provides a numerical representation of the situation or circumstances being studied. Modelling and simulation are common activities carried out with the use of spreadsheet software. See Spreadsheet.

Modem (modulator—demodulator). A modem is a communications device that allows users to send and receive data via an ordinary telephone line. See also Fax-modem.

Module design. Detailed design involves the specification of how an individual component of a system will function in terms of its data input and output, user interface and security.

Module or unit testing. Individual modules are tested to ensure they function correctly for given inputs.

Monitoring and control. Monitoring involves ensuring the project is working to plan once it is started. Control is taking corrective action if the project deviates from the plan.

Morality. In general terms, morality is concerned with individual character or personality and beliefs governing right and wrong. See Ethics and Professionalism.

Motherboard. The motherboard is the main circuit board within a computer and houses the processor, memory, expansion slots and a number of connectors used for attaching additional devices, such as a hard disk drive.

Multidimensional data. Data broken down in analysis for a data warehouse into dimensions such as time period, product segment and the geographical location. Dimensions are broken down into categories. For time these could be months, quarters or years.

Multimedia. Multimedia can be defined as the combination of several media under the control of an interactive computer program. Such media can include text, graphics, sound, video and animation. In terms of computer hardware, a multimedia computer will incorporate a CD-ROM drive and sound card. In addition, current standards for multimedia computers specify minimum graphics capabilities and processor speed.

Multi-user testing. The effect of different users accessing the same customer or stock record is tested. Software should not permit two users to modify the same data at the same time.

Mouse. A pointing device found on most modern personal computers. Moving the mouse over a flat surface causes a corresponding movement to a small pointer on the screen. Selections, such as menu items, are made by clicking one of the buttons on the mouse. See Pointing device.

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N

Natural keyboard. A variation on the conventional computer keyboard, a natural keyboard has the keys arranged so that users can locate them more quickly and easily. The keyboard itself is often shaped in a way that makes prolonged use more comfortable.

Navigating. The act of moving from one section of the Internet to another.

Net present value (NPV). A measure of the return from a system which takes into account the variation in monetary value through time.

Net PC. A hybrid between a traditional PC and a network computer, it will usually feature no floppy or hard drive and limited memory and processor since it will use the power of the server to provide applications.

Network computer (NC). The purpose of the network computer is to provide access to a network system, such as the Internet, at minimal cost. A typical network computer will feature limited disk storage, memory and expansion potential. In addition, the computer may also feature an older, less powerful processor than its desktop counterpart. Network computers are often associated with the thin client architecture and the concept of zero administration. See Thin client and Zero administration.

Network interface card. A network interface card is an expansion card that allows a personal computer to be connected to a network. The network card deals with all communications between the network and the computer.

Network operating system (NOS). This describes the software needed to operate and manage a network system.

Network topology. The physical layout of a LAN is known as a network topology. Bus, star, ring and combinations are most common.

Neural networks. These systems use a similar process to biological intelligence to learn problem-solving skills by ‘training’ or exposure to a wide range of problems. The learning occurs through interactions between nodes which are similar to the neurons of the brain.

Node name. The name used to identify a particular computer system on the Internet.

Nolan’s stage model. This model is a six-stage maturity model for the application of information systems to a business.

Non-interlaced. An interlaced display is one where each complete image shown on a monitor’s display is drawn in two steps. A non-interlaced monitor refreshes the display in a single pass. A good quality monitor is normally capable of supporting a non-interlaced display at a refresh rate of 70 Hz or more.

Non-volatile memory. The memory found in a personal computer is considered volatile, that is, anything held in memory is lost once the power to the computer system is switched off. However, non-volatile memory retains its contents until altered or erased.

Normalisation. This design activity is a procedure which is used to optimise the physical storage of data within a database. It involves simplification of entities and minimisation of duplication of data.

Notebook. A small portable computer, which is approximately the size of an A4 sheet of paper.

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Object-oriented database. An object-oriented approach to database design employs the concept of reusable objects in order to develop sophisticated or complex applications. An object combines data structures with any functions needed to manipulate the object or the data it holds.

Object-oriented design. This is a design technique which involves basing the design of software on real-world objects which consist of both data and the procedures that process them rather than traditional design where procedures operate on separate data.

Observation. This analysis technique is useful for identifying inefficiencies in an existing way of working with either a computer-based or a manual information system. It involves timing how long particular operations take and observing the method used to perform them. It can be time-consuming and the staff who are observed may behave differently from normal.

Office management systems. This describes a category of office automation systems that assists users in scheduling projects and tasks. Examples of office management systems include personal information managers (PIM) and project management software. See Office automation systems.

Off-the-shelf purchase or packaged software. An acqusition method which involves direct purchase of a pre-written application used by more than one company.

Office automation systems. In business organisations, productivity software is often used to reduce the time needed to complete routine administrative tasks, such as producing documents or organising meetings. By attempting to automate many of the activities carried out within a typical office, organisations seek to improve efficiency, reduce costs and enhance internal communications. Computer-based information systems used in this way are generally referred to as office automation systems.

Offline. When a user is not connected to their Internet account, they are said to be offline.

Offline reader. Sometimes called an offline browser. An offline reader allows a single page, a group of pages, or an entire web site to be copied to the user’s hard disk drive so that the material can be viewed at a later date.

Online. When a user is connected to their Internet account, usually by a modem link, they are said to be online.

Online analytical processing (OLAP). OLAP can be considered to be a synonym for a data warehouse. It refers to the ability to analyse in real time the type of multidimensional information stored in data warehouses. The term ‘online’ indicates that users can formulate their own queries compared to standard paper reports. The originator of OLAP, Dr E. Codd, defines OLAP as the dynamic synthesis, analysis, and consolidation of large volumes of multidimensional data

Online or Internet revenue contribution. An assessment of the direct or indirect contribution of the Internet to sales, usually expressed as a percentage of overall sales revenue.

Online stock fraud. Most online stock fraud involves posting false information to the Internet in order to increase or decrease the values of stocks.

Open profiling standard. A standard method of collecting personal details about customers. An initiative, begun by Netscape and Firefly, now supported by many players including Microsoft.

Open questions. Not restricted to a limited range of answers such as Yes/No (closed questions). Asked to elicit opinions or ideas for the new system or identify commonly held views amongst staff. Open questions are not typically used for quantitative analysis, but can be used to identify a common problem.

Open source. An alternative approach towards software development and acquisition. Open source applications are made available free of charge to individuals and organisations.

Open system. Interaction occurs with elements beyond the system boundary

Open systems interconnection (OSI) model. An international standard defining connectivity of links between computers at different levels.

Open-loop control system. An open-loop control system is one in which there is an attempt to reach the system objective, but no control action to modify the inputs or process is taken once the process has begun.

Operating environment. This describes a number of programs intended to simplify the way in which users work with the operating system. Early versions of Windows, for example, provided a graphical user interface that removed the need for users to work with the more complex aspects of MS-DOS.

Operating system (OS). The operating system interacts with the hardware of the computer at a very low level in order to manage and direct the computer’s resources. The basic functions of the operating system include: allocating and managing system resources, scheduling the use of resources and monitoring the activities of the computer system.

Operational feasibility. An assessment of how the new system will affect the daily working practices within the organisation. (Is the system workable on a day-to-day basis?)

Operations information systems. These systems are generally concerned with process control, transaction processing, communications (internal and external) and productivity.

Optical character recognition (OCR). Optical character recognition involves using software that attempts to recognise individual characters. An optical scanner is normally used to capture an image of a document. As the image is processed, the OCR program creates a text file containing all of the characters recognised. This file can then be edited further using a word processor, text editor or other suitable program. See Optical scanner.

Optical mark recognition (OMR). A variation on optical character recognition is optical mark recognition, which involves detecting and recognising simple marks made on a document. See Optical character recognition.

Optical scanner. The optical scanner can be used to capture graphics and text from printed documents. A photograph, for example, can be captured and converted into a form suitable for use with a number of different applications. Images captured in this way are normally incorporated into word processing or desktop publishing documents.

Organisational culture. This concept includes shared values, unwritten rules and assumptions within the organisation as well as the practices that all groups share. Corporate cultures are created when a group of employees interact over time and are relatively successful in what they undertake.

Organisational feasibility. Reviews how well the solution meets the needs of the business and anticipates problems such as hostility to the system if insufficient training occurs. (Considers the effect of change given a company’s culture and politics.)

Outline design. A high-level definition of the different components that make up the architecture of a system and how they interact.

Output. An output is a finished product that is created by a system. Examples include information, products and services.

Output design. Output design involves specifying how production of on-screen reports and paper-based reports will occur. Output may occur to database or file for storing information entered or also for use by other systems.

Output devices. Output devices translate the results of processing — output — into a human-readable form.