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Chapter 19
Biochemistry

19-01

Title	The cell: the smallest structural unit in living organisms
Caption	Physically, cells consist primarily of a nucleus, a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. Chemically, cells consist primarily of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Notes	A cell can be an independent organism, or part of a larger organism.
Keywords	cell, organism, nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, carbohydrate, lipid, protein, nucleic acid

19-01-03d

Title	Glucose: a key carbohydrate in living systems
Caption	The structural formula and spacefilling model presented here represent glucose, a carbohydrate. Glucose is involved in short-term energy storage.
Notes	Glucose is an aldehyde that also contains many -OH groups. The -OH groups make glucose soluble in water-based systems, such as blood. The solubility of glucose facilitates its mobility in living systems, allowing glucose to "carry" energy where it is needed.
Keywords	cell, organism, carbohydrate, aldehyde, alcohol , glucose

19-02

Title	Glucose can assume a chain or ring structure
Caption	Glucose is easily convertable from one form to another, by interaction of a terminal -OH with the aldehyde part of the straight-chain molecule. The forms are all isomers.
Notes	Glucose is an aldehyde that also contains many -OH groups. The -OH groups make glucose soluble in water-based systems, such as blood. The solubility of glucose facilitates its mobility in living systems, allowing glucose to "carry" energy where it is needed.
Keywords	cell, organism, carbohydrate, aldehyde, alcohol, ring, chain, isomer, glucose

19-02-01e

Title	The structural formula and spacefilling model presented here represent glucose, a monosaccharide
Caption	Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide, a carbohydrate that cannot be broken into simpler carbohydrates.
Notes	Glucose is an example of a hexose, a six-carbon sugar.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, aldehyde, alcohol, ring, chain, isomer, monosaccharide

19-02-02un

Title	Structures of fructose and galactose
Caption	Fructose and galactose are two examples of monosaccharides that can assume a ring form.
Notes	Glucose and galactose have very similar structures: in the ring form, they differ only in the placement of a single -OH group.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, ring, isomer, monosaccharide, fructose, galactose

19-02-05un

Title	Monosaccharides can join to form disaccharides
Caption	The structural formulas show that pairs of monosaccharides can join together through a glycoside linkage to form a disaccharide. A disaccharide is a carbohydrate that can be broken into two simpler carbohydrates.
Notes	As an example: glucose and fructose can join to form the disaccharide sucrose, common table sugar.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, aldehyde, alcohol, ring, chain, isomer, monosaccharide, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, sucrose, fructose

19-03

Title	Digestion converts disaccharides into monosaccharides
Caption	An important function of digestion is to break the glycoside linkage in disaccharides, converting them to monosaccharides that can be used for energy storage.
Notes	As an example, the disaccharide sucrose (table sugar) is broken into glucose and fructose during digestion.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, aldehyde, alcohol, ring, chain, isomer, monosaccharide, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, sucrose, digestion, fructose

19-03-02un

Title	Starch is an example of a polysaccharide
Caption	Many monosaccharides can form glycoside linkages to build what amounts to a sugar polymer: a polysaccharide. Starch is one example that consists of repeating glucose units.
Notes	Cellulose and glycogen are other examples of polysaccharides.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, monosaccharide, glycoside linkage, polysaccharide, cellulose, glycogen

19-04

Title	Digestion converts polysaccharides into monosaccharides
Caption	An important function of digestion is to break the glycoside linkages in disaccharides, converting them to monosaccharides that can be used for energy storage.
Notes	As an example, the polysaccharide starch is broken into glucose molecules during digestion.
Keywords	glucose, carbohydrate, monosaccharide, glycoside linkage, polysaccharide, digestion

19-04-01un

Title	Example 19.1: Identifying carbohydrates
Caption	Which of the structures, (a), (b), (c), (d) are carbohydrates? Classify the carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.
Notes	Carbohydrates are either aldehydes or ketones with multiple -OH groups present. Structures (a), (b), and (d) all fit this definition. Structure (c) is a carboxylic acid. A disaccharide will have one glycoside linkage; a polysaccharide will have many. Structures (a) and (b) are monosaccharides; (d) is a disaccharide.
Keywords	carbohydrate, monosaccharide, aldehyde, ketone, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, polysaccharide

19-04-02un

Title	Skillbuilder 19.1: Identifying carbohydrates
Caption	Which of the structures, (a), (b), (c), (d) are carbohydrates? Classify the carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.
Notes	Carbohydrates are either aldehydes or ketones with multiple -OH groups present. Structures (b), and (d) fit this definition. Structure (a) is an amino acid, and (c) is a carboxylic acid. A disaccharide will have one glycoside linkage; a polysaccharide will have many. Structures (b) is a monosaccharide; (d) is a disaccharide.
Keywords	carbohydrate, monosaccharide, amino acid, carboxylic acid, aldehyde, ketone, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, polysaccharide

19-04-03un

Title	General structure of fatty acids: a type of lipid
Caption	Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long hydrocarbon tail. In the general structure, "R" represents the large hydrocarbon tail.
Notes	R generally represents a hydrocarbon chain of 3 to 19 C atoms.
Keywords	general structure, fatty acid, lipid, carboxylic acid, hydrocarbon

19-04-04j

Title	The structural formula and spacefilling model represent myristic acid, a fatty acid
Caption	Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long hydrocarbon tail. In the general structure, "R" represents the large hydrocarbon tail. In this example, the hydrocarbon tail has 13 carbons.
Notes	Myristic acid is in butterfat and coconut oil. It is a saturated fatty acid: the hydrocarbon tail has no double bonds.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, fatty acid, lipid, carboxylic acid, hydrocarbon, myristic acid

19-04-05k

Title	The structural formula and spacefilling model represent oleic acid, a fatty acid
Caption	Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long hydrocarbon tail. In the general structure, "R" represents the large hydrocarbon tail. In this example, the hydrocarbon tail has 17 carbons.
Notes	Oleic acid is in olive oil, peanut oil, and human fat. It is an unsaturated fatty acid: the hydrocarbon tail has a double bond. Since there is only one double bond, the fatty acid is monounsaturated.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, fatty acid, lipid, carboxylic acid, hydrocarbon, oleic acid

19-04-05un

Title	Structure of glycerol, a compound that reacts with fatty acids
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on fatty acids, causing the fatty acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and fatty acids react to form triglycerides.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride

19-04-06l

Title	Glycerol and fatty acids form triglycerides
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on fatty acids, causing the fatty acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and fatty acids react to form triglycerides.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride

19-04-07un

Title	General formulas show how glycerol and fatty acids form triglycerides
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on fatty acids, causing the fatty acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and fatty acids react to form triglycerides.
Keywords	general formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride

19-04-08un

Title	Structural formulas show how glycerol and stearic acid forms tristearin, a triglyceride
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on stearic acid, causing the stearic acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and stearic acid react to form tristearin, a triglyceride.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride

19-04-11un

Title	Example 19.2: Identifying triglycerides
Caption	Identify the triglycerides and classify each as saturated and unsaturated.
Notes	(a) not a triglyceride; this is a carboxylic acid.(b) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is saturated, because there are no double bonds in the hydrocarbon chains.(c) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is unsaturated, because there is a double bond in the hydrocarbon chains.(d) not a triglyceride; this is a monosaccharide.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride, saturated, unsaturated

19-04-12un

Title	Skillbuilder 19.2: Identifying triglycerides
Caption	Identify the triglycerides and classify each as saturated and unsaturated.
Notes	(a) not a triglyceride; this is an amine.(b) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is unsaturated, because there is a double bond in the hydrocarbon chains.(c) not a triglyceride; this is a monosaccharide.(d) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is saturated, because there are no double bonds in the hydrocarbon chains.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride, saturated, unsaturated

19-04-13o

Title	Triglycerides are broken down by digestion
Caption	Digestion breaks down triglycerides into glycerol, monoglycerides, diglycerol, and fatty acids. These products pass through the intestine walls, where they reassemble into triglycerides as they pass into the blood.
Notes	Digestion of triglycerides is slower than digestion of other food types.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, alcohol, triglyceride, monoglyceride, diglycerol

19-04-15q

Title	The structural formula and spacefilling model presented here represent tristearin, a triglyceride
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on stearic acid, causing the stearic acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and stearic acid react to form tristearin, a triglyceride.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, fatty acid, lipid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, stearic acid, triglyceride, tristearin

19-04-16r

Title	The structural formula and spacefilling model presented here represent trilinolenin, a triglyceride
Caption	The -OH groups on glycerol can react with the -COOH groups on linolenic acid, causing the linolenic acid to join to the glycerol, and releasing water.
Notes	The glycerol and linolenic acid react to form trilinolenin, a triglyceride. The triglyceride contains unsaturated fatty acids.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, fatty acid, lipid, carboxylic acid, glycerol, linolenic acid, triglyceride, trilinolenin

19-04-17s

Title	Phospholipids are like a triglyceride in which phosphate has replaced a fatty acid
Caption	The phosphate group makes the phospholipid polar.
Notes	Phospholipids are found in cell membranes.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, phosphate, triglyceride, phospholipid, polar

19-04-17un

Title	Structure of phosphatidyl choline: a phospholipid
Caption	The substituted phosphate group makes the phospholipid polar.
Notes	This phospholipid is found in cell membranes of higher animals.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, phosphate, triglyceride, phospholipid, polar, phosphatidyl choline

19-05

Title	Phospholipids have a polar head and nonpolar tails
Caption	How would a phospholipid orient itself if placed in water?
Notes	The polar head would point into the water; the tails would point away from the water.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, phosphate, triglyceride, phospholipid, polar, water

19-06

Title	Cell membranes are formed from lipid bilayers
Caption	The polar heads point into the cell, and outward, into the cell's environment. The nonpolar tails point toward one another.
Notes	Both phospholipids and glycolipids can form lipid bilayers.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, phosphate, triglyceride, phospholipid, polar, water, glycolipid, bilayer, cell membrane

19-06-01un

Title	Steroids have a four-ring structure
Caption	Steroids are important biological compounds. Like phospholipids and glycolipids, steriods are found in cell membranes.
Notes	Steroids include cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen.
Keywords	general formula, steroid, phospholipid, glycolipid, cell membrane

19-06-01.01un

Title	Structural formulas of three common steroids
Caption	Steroids include cholesterol (part of cell membranes), testosterone (principal male hormone), and estrogen (principal female hormone).
Notes	Steroids are important biological compounds.
Keywords	structural formula, steroid, cell membrane, cholesterol, testosterone, hormone, estrogen

19-06-05un

Title	General structure of amino acids
Caption	Amino acids combine a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group (R) in a single molecule.
Notes	Amino acids can polymerize to form proteins.
Keywords	general structure, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein

19-06-06w

Title	Structural formula and spacefilling model of alanine, an amino acid
Caption	Alanine combines a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group (-CH3) in a single molecule.
Notes	Alanine is a common amino acid in living organisms.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, alanine, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein

19-06-07x

Title	Structural formula and spacefilling model of serine, an amino acid
Caption	Serine combines a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group (actually an alcohol, -CH2OH) in a single molecule.
Notes	Serine is a common amino acid in living organisms.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, serine, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein

19-06-08y

Title	Structural formula and spacefilling model of aspartic acid, an amino acid
Caption	Aspartic acid combines a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group (actually a carboxylic acid, -CH2COOH) in a single molecule.
Notes	Aspartic acid is a common amino acid in living organisms.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, aspartic acid, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein

19-06-09z

Title	Structural formula and spacefilling model of lysine, an amino acid
Caption	Lysine combines a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group (actually an amine. -CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2) in a single molecule.
Notes	Lysine is a common amino acid in living organisms.
Keywords	structural formula, spacefilling model, lysine, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein

19-06-10_T02

Title	Table 19.2: Common amino acids
Caption	The 20 amino acids in this table are all common in living organisms. They all combine a carboxylic acid group, an amine group, and a hydrocarbon group in a single molecule.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins. These are considered to be the 20 "essential" amino acids. Students might be asked to research why these are "essential".
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, Histidine, Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Asparagine, Glutamine, Lysine, Arginine, Serine, Threonine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Isoleucine, Proline, Methionine, Cysteine , Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine

19-06-11un

Title	Amino acids react with one another by forming a peptide bond
Caption	The peptide bond is a bond that forms between the amine group on one amino acid molecule, and the carboxylic acid group on an adjacent amino acid. Water is released when the bond forms.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins.
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, peptide bond

19-06-12un

Title	Glycine and alanine react with one another by forming a peptide bond
Caption	The peptide bond is a bond that forms between the amine group on one amino acid molecule (alanine), and the carboxylic acid group on an adjacent amino acid (glycine). Water is released when the bond forms.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins.
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, peptide bond, glycine, alanine

19-06-13un

Title	Glycine and alanine react with one another by forming a dipeptide and water
Caption	The peptide bond is a bond that forms between the amine group on one amino acid molecule (alanine), and the carboxylic acid group on an adjacent amino acid (glycine). Water is released when the bond forms.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins.
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, peptide bond, glycine, alanine

19-06-14un

Title	Valine and leucine react with one another by forming a dipeptide and water
Caption	The peptide bond is a bond that forms between the amine group on one amino acid molecule, and the carboxylic acid group on an adjacent amino acid. Water is released when the bond forms.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins.
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, peptide bond, valine, leucine

19-06-15un

Title	Valine and leucine react with one another by forming a dipeptide and water
Caption	The peptide bond is a bond that forms between the amine group on one amino acid molecule, and the carboxylic acid group on an adjacent amino acid. Water is released when the bond forms.
Notes	Amino acids react with incredible variety to form proteins.
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, amine, hydrocarbon, protein, peptide bond, valine, leucine

19-07

Title	Protein structure is expressed at four levels
Caption	Proteins are made up of amino acid sequences. The sequences organize into recognizable shapes: pleated sheet, helix, random coil. These structures fold into a polypeptide chain that is ultimately arranged in a distinct position with respect to one or more other polypeptide chains.
Notes	The four levels of structure allow proteins to display extremely specific properties in living organisms.
Keywords	amino acid, protein, peptide bond, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, polypeptide, pleated sheet, helix, random coil

19-08

Title	Hemoglobin displays typical protein structure
Caption	Proteins are made up of amino acid sequences. The sequences organize into recognizable shapes: pleated sheet, helix, random coil. These structures fold into a polypeptide chain that is ultimately arranged in a distinct position with respect to one or more other polypeptide chains.
Notes	The protein surrounds four heme units, the iron-containing groups that reversibly bind with oxygen.
Keywords	amino acid, protein, peptide bond, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, polypeptide, pleated sheet, helix, random coil, heme, hemoglobin

19-09

Title	Secondary structure in proteins: the alpha-helix
Caption	Proteins are made up of amino acid sequences. In many proteins, the sequences organize into the alpha-helix shape.
Notes	The shape is largely due to the interaction between peptide backbones of amino acids that are close to each other in the chain.
Keywords	amino acid, protein, peptide bond, secondary, peptide, helix

19-10

Title	Secondary structure in proteins: the beta-pleated sheet
Caption	Proteins are made up of amino acid sequences. In many proteins, the sequences organize into the beta-pleated sheet shape.
Notes	The shape is largely due to the interaction between peptide backbones of amino acids on neighboring protein chains.
Keywords	amino acid, protein, peptide bond, secondary, polypeptide, pleated sheet

19-11

Title	Block diagram of DNA
Caption	DNA consists of nucleotide units bonded in a specific pattern. Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a base.
Notes	The nucleotides join together through the phosphate groups. The sugar is deoxyribose.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, deoxyribose

19-11-01un

Title	The sugars in DNA and RNA
Caption	In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA, the sugar is ribose.
Notes	The sugar is deoxyribose for every nucleotide in DNA. Likewise, the sugar is ribose for every RNA nucleotide.
Keywords	structural formula, DNA, RNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, deoxyribose, ribose

19-11-02un

Title	DNA uses four bases
Caption	In DNA, the four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, code genetic information.
Notes	In DNA, neither the sugar (deoxyribose) nor the phosphate group differ among the nucleotides. Only the base pairs differ.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, deoxyribose, adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, genetic

19-11-03un

Title	Like DNA, RNA uses four bases, one of which is uracil
Caption	In DNA, the four bases, adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, code genetic information. RNA also uses four bases, but thymine is replaced by uracil.
Notes	In RNA, neither the sugar (ribose) nor the phosphate group differ among the nucleotides. Only the base pairs differ.
Keywords	DNA, RNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, ribose, adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil

19-12

Title	A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides
Caption	Codons are three-nucleotide sequences that code for an amino acid.
Notes	Sequences of codons in a DNA molecule make up the genes.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, codon, amino acid, gene

19-13

Title	Chromosome structures within cell nucleus to nucleotide
Caption	A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides. A gene is a sequence of codons that code for a protein. A chromosome is a collection of genes.
Notes	Genetic information instructs matter in its organization into proteins and, ultimately, to a living organism.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, codon, amino acid, gene, chromosome, protein

19-14

Title	DNA has a double-helix structure
Caption	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G).
Notes	The base pairs interact through hydrogen bonds.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-14-01un

Title	A base sequence in a DNA strand I
Caption	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, T-A-C-T-T-A-G-G-C-T-G.
Notes	The base pairs interact through hydrogen bonds.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-14-02un

Title	A base sequence in a DNA strand II
Caption	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, A-T-G-A-A-T-C-C-G-A-C.
Notes	The base pairs interact through hydrogen bonds.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-14-03un

Title	Example 19.4: Complementary DNA strand I
Caption	What is the complementary strand of the DNA strand shown?
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, T-A-C-T-C-A-G.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-15

Title	Structural formulas of the complementary DNA bases
Caption	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G).
Notes	The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonding.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-15-02un

Title	Example 19.4 Complementary DNA strand II
Caption	The answer to Example 19.4. The original strand was A-T-G-A-G-T-C.
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-15-03un

Title	Skillbuilder 19.4: Complementary DNA strand
Caption	What is the complementary strand of the DNA strand shown?
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, G-G-T-A-A-C-C.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-15-04un

Title	Skillbuilder 19.4: Complementary DNA strand - answer
Caption	The complementary strand of the DNA strand shown in Skillbuilder 19.4 is G-G-T-A-A-C-C.
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-16

Title	DNA Replication
Caption	DNA replicates when the double helix strands separate. The separated strands then collect nucleotides from the surrounding environment, reassembling two copies of the double helix.
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix, replication

19-17

Title	Sequence for protein synthesis
Caption	As m-RNA moves through a ribosome, each codon instructs the protein to add the amino acid specified by the codon.
Notes	When protein is synthesized, the gene's base sequence is transferred to m-RNA.
Keywords	RNA, m-RNA, ribosome, protein, codon, amino acid

19-17-07un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 51: Carbohydrates
Caption	Which of the structures, (a), (b), (c), (d) are carbohydrates? Classify the carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or trisaccharides.
Notes	Carbohydrates are either aldehydes or ketones with multiple -OH groups present. Structures (a), and (d) fit this definition. Structure (b) is a carboxylic acid, and (c) is an amino acid. A monosaccharide will have one glycoside linkage; a disaccharide will have two; a trisaccharide will have three. Structures (a) is a monosaccharide; (d) is a disaccharide.
Keywords	carbohydrate, monosaccharide, amino acid, carboxylic acid, aldehyde, ketone, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, trisaccharide

19-17-08un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 52: Carbohydrates
Caption	Which of the structures, (a), (b), (c), (d) are carbohydrates? Classify the carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or trisaccharides.
Notes	Carbohydrates are either aldehydes or ketones with multiple -OH groups present. Structures (b), and (c) fit this definition. Structure (a) is a triglyceride, and (d) is an amino acid. A monosaccharide will have one glycoside linkage; a disaccharide will have two; a trisaccharide will have three. Structure (b) is a monosaccharide; (c) is a trisaccharide.
Keywords	carbohydrate, monosaccharide, amino acid, carboxylic acid, aldehyde, ketone, glycoside linkage, disaccharide, trisaccharide

19-17-09un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 53: Carbohydrates
Caption	Classify the structures as a triose, tetrose, pentose, etc.
Notes	The Greek prefix specifies how many carbon atoms are in the carbohydrate. (a) hexose(b) tetrose(c) pentose(d) tetrose
Keywords	carbohydrate, hexose, tetrose, pentose, triose

19-17-10un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 54: Carbohydrates
Caption	Classify the structures as a triose, tetrose, pentose, etc.
Notes	The Greek prefix specifies how many carbon atoms are in the carbohydrate.(a) pentose(b) triose(c) pentose(d) pentose
Keywords	carbohydrate, hexose, tetrose, pentose, triose

19-17-11un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 59: Lipids
Caption	Identify the lipids. If the compound is a lipid, determine the type. If it is a fatty acid or triglyceride, classify it as saturated and unsaturated.
Notes	(a) a saturated fatty acid: this is a carboxylic acid with no double bonds in the hydrocarbon part.(b) lipid: this is a steroid, because of the 4-ring structure. (c) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is unsaturated, because there is a double bond in the hydrocarbon chains.(d) a carbohydrate.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, steroid, lipid, triglyceride, saturated, unsaturated

19-17-12un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 60: Lipids
Caption	Identify the lipids. If the compound is a lipid, determine the type. If it is a fatty acid or triglyceride, classify it as saturated and unsaturated.
Notes	(a) an unsaturated fatty acid: this is a carboxylic acid with double bonds in the hydrocarbon part.(b) an amino acid, not a lipid.(c) lipid: this is a steroid, because of the 4-ring structure.(d) triglyceride: the glycerol backbone is present. It is saturated, because there are no double bonds in the hydrocarbon chains.
Keywords	structural formula, fatty acid, carboxylic acid, steroid, lipid, triglyceride, saturated, unsaturated

19-17-13un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 65: Amino acids and proteins
Caption	Which of the following are amino acids?
Notes	Amino acids fit the general formula: an amine and a carboxylic acid group in the same molecule.(a) not an amino acid: a carboxylic acid(b) an amino acid(c) not an amino acid(d) an amino acid
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid

19-17-14un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 66: Amino acids and proteins
Caption	Which of the following are amino acids?
Notes	Amino acids fit the general formula: an amine and a carboxylic acid group in the same molecule. (a) an amino acid(b) not an amino acid: a polyalcohol(c) not an amino acid: a carbohydrate(d) an amino acid
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, carboxylic acid, alcohol, carbohydrate

19-17-15un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 75: Nucleic acids
Caption	Which of the following is a nucleotide? For each nucleotide, identify the base as A, T, C, or G.
Notes	(a) a nucleotide: G(b) not a nucleotide: a carbohydrate(c) not a nucleotide: an amino acid(d) not a nucleotide: a base (G)
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate, base, guanine

19-17-16un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 76: Nucleic acids
Caption	Which of the following is a nucleotide? For each nucleotide, identify the base as A, T, C, or G.
Notes	(a) not a nucleotide: an amino acid(b) a nucleotide: (A)(c) a nucleotide: (C)(d) not a nucleotide: a base (T)
Keywords	structural formula, amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate, base, thymine, adenine, cytosine

19-17-17un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 77: Nucleic acids
Caption	What is the complementary strand of the DNA strand shown?
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, T-T-A-C-G-C-G.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-17-18un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 78: Nucleic acids
Caption	What is the complementary strand of the DNA strand shown?
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). The strand would join with its complement, A-T-A-G-C-C-A.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-17-19un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 79: Nucleic acids
Caption	The DNA strand shown will replicate to two identical copies.
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). Each single strand would join with its complement.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-17-20un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 80: Nucleic acids
Caption	The DNA strand shown will replicate to two identical copies.
Notes	The strands of the double helix are complementary to each other. This is so because the bases interact in pairs: adenine with thymine (A and T), and cytosine with guanine (C and G). Each single strand would join with its complement.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, base, double helix

19-17-21un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 87: Highlight problems I
Caption	One way to fight viral infections is to prevent the virus' DNA from replicating. Fake nucleotides, such as the one shown, will stop replication when introduced into DNA. Suggest a mechanism by which the fake nucleotide would halt DNA replication.
Notes	The nucleotides join together through the sugar phosphate backbone. All nucleotides in DNA use the same sugar, deoxyribose. Some other sugar would not interact to continue the chain of nucleotides. Once the chain breaks, replication stops, and the virus could not reproduce.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, virus, replication

19-17-22un

Title	Chapter 19, Problem 87: Highlight problems II
Caption	One way to fight viral infections is to prevent the virus' DNA from replicating. Fake nucleotides, such as the one shown, will stop replication when introduced into DNA. Suggest a mechanism by which the fake nucleotide would halt DNA replication. In AZT, a fake nucleotide replaces the one shown.
Notes	The nucleotides join together through the sugar phosphate backbone. All nucleotides in DNA use the same sugar, deoxyribose. Some other sugar would not interact to continue the chain of nucleotides. Once the chain breaks, replication stops, and the virus could not reproduce.
Keywords	DNA, nucleotide, sugar, phosphate, base, virus, replication

Chapter 19Biochemistry

Chapter 19
Biochemistry