Introduction

Organically grown produce is an increasingly familiar site in our grocery stores. But is organic farming viable in Europe, with its small land base, dense population, and strict controls on food production and export?

The answer appears to be yes. Even in the Netherlands, one of Europe’s smallest countries, organic farming is a booming business, with growing support from consumers and regulators alike. The Netherlands has a population of almost 16 million people on a land area of only 4.15 million hectares—a little less than the combined land area of Vermont and New Hampshire—and is considered one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

The country’s economy has historically been firmly based in agriculture, but the limited land base creates pressure for cost- and space-efficient farming. In 1999, the Netherlands had a total agricultural area of 2 million hectares, almost half the country’s land surface. More than a hundred thousand farms support only 4% of the country’s labor force. Although more than half of these farms are livestock operations, primarily cattle, the country also has a prominent horticulture and cash-crop industry, together comprising 35% of farms. Fruit orchards and mixed farms account for another 5% and 4%, respectively.

Organic farming—farming that avoids or largely excludes use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and emphasizes environmentally friendly management practices—has grown quickly in the Netherlands, particularly over the last two decades. From an early start with a single “bio-dynamic” farm in 1926, the sector grew to include an organic farming school in Warmond (1947) and eventually a government-based biodynamic farming advisor (1964). By 1972 the country had 85 organic farms; by the late 1980s there were more than 360. The number of organic farms continues to grow, but the main changes over the last decade have centered on increasing consumer and government recognition of the potential for organic farming. In the early 1990s, the government introduced a subsidy program for farmers who wished to convert from traditional agriculture to organic farming. Recent food scandals, including BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) and fears about genetically engineered organisms, have raised consumer concern about food safety, especially where babies and children are potentially affected. (The growth in organic baby food has been particularly rapid in recent years.) Falling prices in conventional agriculture have also contributed to increasing acceptance of organic farming as a viable alternative.

With its tiny land base, the Netherlands is acutely conscious of the challenges of sustainable development. There is now growing consensus that organic farming is one means of preserving soil and water quality while producing safe and healthy foods.

Current Status

In 1996 the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture developed an action plan for the promotion of organic farming, with a target of 10% of farms using organic techniques. Conversion incentives have been effective: between 1993 and 1997, roughly 60 farms a year converted to organic farming; that number doubled in 1998 and 1999. At present, the country boasts almost 1,400 organic farms, or about 1.5% of all farms in the country. Of these, almost a quarter are horticulture (ornamental plant) farms, and another quarter produce cash crops. The remainder are fruit (5%), mixed farms (about 4%), and grazing lands (43%).

The Netherlands is in good company. Germany has more than 8,000 organic farms, Austria has more than 20,000, and some areas of Switzerland are 30% organic (the national average is 7%). Growth has also been rapid in Scandinavia and particularly in Italy, where the number of organic farms more than doubled from 18,000 to 40,000 between 1996 and 1998.

There is persuasive evidence that sales of organically grown food will continue to grow rapidly. One indicator is the entry of major retailers such as MacDonald’s (selling organic milk in Sweden), yogurt manufacturer Danone, and airlines Lufthansa and Swiss Air have all made a public commitment to organic foods.

Government regulatory agencies have shown both fiscal and policy commitment to organic agriculture, but there is now a need for coordinated research into organic methods. New marketing approaches will also be required to sustain current growth in the sector.

Pro and Con Arguments

Pro Arguments

1. A Key Component of Sustainable Development
Current levels of fertilizer and pesticide use are not sustainable; soils are increasingly contaminated and pesticide-resistant insects and plant diseases continue to challenge production. Organic farming is the only responsible long-term solution for food production.

2. Human Health Protection
Organically grown food tastes better and is better for people. The Precautionary Principle suggests that it is better to take preventive action where there is any doubt about the environmental impact of an action or substance. Foods grown in conventional agriculture are contaminated by a variety of substances, potentially including genetically modified organisms. Organic food is a safer choice.

Con Arguments

1. Impacts on Established Agriculture
The Netherlands’ economy is built on an agricultural industry that relies on established intensive food production practices. A concerted move to organic agriculture could damage the country’s competitiveness in international markets. It would be a mistake to jeopardize the country’s economy by too rapid a move to organic practices.

2. Consumer Demand
Although the market for organic foods is growing, it is still not large. There is no proof that a majority of consumers will be willing to pay the increased costs of organically grown food.

Regulations

Like all other member countries, the Netherlands is subject to European Commission directives (requiring conformance in the country’s own laws) relating to all aspects of food production and processing. Applicable directives are Council Regulation No. 2092/91 for organic plant production and processing, and Council Regulation No. 1804/99 for animal production.

The Netherlands has designated the independent organization Skal as the country’s only approved food inspection body.

Connection to Environmental Science

· Chapter 8 (Soil: Foundation for Land Ecosystems), pages 207–231, reviews the principles of soil development and plant–soil interaction.

· Chapter 9 (The Production and Distribution of Food, pages 233–259), discusses forces affecting modern food production systems.

· Chapter 10 (Wild Species and Biodiversity), Section 10.1 (“Value of Wild Species,” pages 262–267), discusses the intrinsic value of wild species and their value as sources for agriculture, forestry, medicines, pharmaceuticals, recreational, aesthetic, and scientific use. Section 10.3 (“Biodiversity and Its Decline,” pages 274–282), discusses some of the causes of biodiversity loss, including habitat alteration, pollution, and exotic species.

· Chapter 11 (Ecosystem Capital: Use and Restoration), Section 11.2 (“Conservation, Preservation, Restoration,” pages 292–299) discusses the concept of maximum sustainable yield.

· Chapter 16 (Pests and Pest Control), Section 16.1 (“The Need for Pest Control”) presents arguments in favor of pest control on page 436. Section 16.2 (“Promises and Problems of the Chemical Approach,” pages 438–446), discusses some of the difficulties with chemical pesticide use—one of the main reasons that genetically engineered pest-resistant crops are attractive to producers. Section 16.3 (“Alternative Pest Control Methods,” pages 447–454), presents a range of nonchemical pest-control strategies. Section 16.4 (“Socioeconomic Issues in Pest Management,” pages 454–457) discusses integrated pest management.

Hyperlinks

Organic Europe

An excellent, well-organized site focused on organic farming in Europe. It includes numerous links to other information resources.

IPMEurope

IPMEurope, the European Group for Integrated Pest Management in Development Cooperation, is a network for coordinating European support to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in research and development.

Consortium for International Crop Protection

The Consortium for International Crop Protection (CICP) is a non-profit organization formed in 1978 by a group of U.S. universities. Its principal purpose is to assist developing nations reduce food crop losses caused by pests while also safe-guarding the environment.

FAO Organic Farming Page

This is the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s home page on organic farming.

Internet IPM Resources

A useful page of Web links, organized by geographic region.

References

Centre europeen pour la romotion et la formation en milieu agricole et rural. “Organic Farming in the European Union.” In Proceedings of the European Seminar: Organic Farming in the European Union: Vignola, Italy, 6–8 June 1996. Brussels: CEPFAR, 1996.

Committee for Sustainable Agriculture. Growing for the Future: Organically Grown—Your Guide. Colfax, CA: Committee for Sustainable Agriculture, 1989.

Lampkin, N.; and H. Vogtmann. Converting to Organic Farming. Hamstead Marshall, Near Newbury, Berkshire (UK): Elm Farm Research Centre, 1986.

Proctor, Peter, and Gillian Cole. Grasp the Nettle: Making Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Work. Auckland, New Zealand, New York: Random House, 1997.

Sansavini, S., and J. Wollesen. The Organic Farming Movement in Europe. HortTechnology 2, no. 2 (April/June 1992): 276–281.

Schilthuis, Willy. Biodynamic Agriculture. Hudson, NY: Anthroposophic Press, 1994.