By the middle of the fourteenth century, much of Europe was in crisis. Population growth had exceeded food production. The Hundred Years’ War erupted between France and England. The Black Death ravaged as much as 40 percent of the European countryside. The papacy emerged from its conflict with the Holy Roman Empire as a significantly stronger entity. But the result was the Great Schism, that created another pope, thus two reigned simultaneously.

Italy became an important cultural center with its influence in literature and art. Both of these forged a new interest in all things human and classical in nature, and thus the rise of humanism. The great period of Gothic cathedrals persisted but towards the end of the century began to wane from the ravages of war and pestilence.

The growing middle class exerted its new power influence in commerce and the arts. Guilds sprang up to give artisans control over their education and careers. This was complemented by the continuing influence of the Dominican and Franciscan religious orders. The new awareness of societal needs manifested itself in the architecture of churches designed for preaching as well as liturgy, and in new religious themes that addressed personal or sentimental devotion.

Goals for this chapter include:

• Continue to monitor the map as some of today's great European cities emerge into political, economic, and artistic dominance.

• Grasp the regional flavors of the Gothic style, especially in architecture and painting.

• Take note of the fact that a great many more names of individuals--artists and patrons--are known to us in the Gothic than in the previous periods.

• Watch for signs of the separation of design and structure--the emergence of the idea of design as a separate category of endeavor.

• Pay attention to the transformation of two-dimensional art forms into a new and vital expression.

• Take note of the ways in which humanism influenced all facets of European arts and culture.