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This chapter covers early Rome and the Republic until the establishment of the Empire by Octavian Caesar. From the end of the Neolithic period until the emergence of the Roman Republic, the Italian Peninsula was dominated largely by the Etruscans. Early Roman government reflected both the Etruscan tradition and the agrarian nature of Roman society. In time, it was the Senate that came to dominate Roman political, economic, and social life. Throughout all of Roman life and history, the struggle between the patricians and plebeians remained an important factor in the development of constitutional Rome. Initially, the key to Rome’s success lay in the varied, yet capable way they handled their opponents. The struggle with Carthage, lasting more than a century, became a dominant feature of Roman life, and remained a central fact of Roman history. Rome’s successful control of new lands and peoples brought new problems to the republic, which continued to grow at the expense of eastern Mediterranean powers. The time came for Rome to face the fact that it had become an empire, and the early attempts at reform, particularly those associated with the Gracchi brothers, should be viewed as the initial stages of the transformation from a republic to an empire. The end of the republic was in sight as extraordinary senatorial actions continued to erode the basic principles of the Roman constitutional system. Ambitious generals and self-serving tribunes underscored the assault upon Roman tradition. The formation of the First Triumvirate in 60 BCE, which brought three competitors into an informal political alliance, was a further blow to the stability of the republic. Julius Caesar emerged as the sole dictator, only to be murdered by a Senatorial faction in 44 BCE. Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate of Roman history in order to hunt down the assassins. The men of the Second Triumvirate, like those of the first, soon became involved in civil war. In 31 BCE, after years of struggle, the issue of supremacy within the Roman state was finally settled at the naval battle at Actium in favor of Octavian, who went on to establish unified rule over the Roman state. After reading this chapter you should be able to understand:
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