Socialization: The Origins of Political Opinions
Political socialization is the process by which one learns political values, beliefs and opinions. The process starts at home with the family, and these beliefs often are set for life by the family. Most children adopt the political party preference of their parents. The role of schools in the socialization process is to produce "good citizens" by teaching the positive aspects of the political process. Patriotism and symbolism play key roles in this learning process. Studies show that the higher the education level the greater the level of tolerance and positive attitudes toward government. Religious beliefs help to shape one's political opinions. Religion can influence views on specific issues, as well as ideology. Despite the fact that the U.S. is one of the most "religious" nations in terms of those who say they believe in God or belong to an organized religion, Americans are also very wary of the role of religion in politics. A generation gap exists in the public opinion of age groups in America; historical events may effect the view of those who have experienced them, such as the Great Depression. Changes in life circumstances over time may also affect public opinion. Since most Americans learn about politics and issues through television, media plays a large role in shaping public opinion, particularly by setting the agenda and determining the issues to be discussed. Ironically, Americans express little confidence in the major branches of government, while a majority show confidence in the military.

Ideology and Opinion
Ideology helps to shape political opinion. Ideology simplifies political decision making by providing a consistent set of generalized principles by which to evaluate particular political events and proposals. However, at any given time many self-described liberals may favor specific conservative politics and vice versa. These inconsistencies indicate that a single overarching liberal-conservative dimension may be inadequate for describing the ideology of Americans.

Gender and Opinion
Men and women do differ in their political views on a few issues. Interestingly, these differences are not in traditional gender issues such as abortion or the role of women in business or politics. Rather, the gender gap is mainly evident in issues such as military intervention, spending on social programs, affirmative action and restrictions on firearms. The gender gap is most evident in party identification, where women are much more likely to identify themselves as Democrats and men more likely to identify with the Republican party.

Race and Opinion
Some of the strongest opinion gaps observed in the United States occur on the basis of race. African Americans, as would be expected, are much more likely to see discrimination as a problem and to favor policies aimed at its reduction. Two-thirds of African Americans favor government action to reduce poverty and, in general, African Americans are much more likely to identify themselves as liberal and as Democrats. It should be noted, though, that a significant minority, about one-quarter, describe themselves as conservative

Policy and Opinion
Because public opinion is weak, inconsistent, unstable, and poorly formed, political leaders turn to a small group of political activists, who communicate opinions directly. This narrow segment of society, which is composed of lawyers, lobbyists, journalists and executives as well as those who actively participate, form a powerful elite. The key link between opinion and policy rests on political participation.

Individual Participation in Politics
Political participation takes many forms, including voting, contributing to candidates, joining interest groups, protesting, writing candidates and representatives, lobbying, campaigning, or merely talking about politics to friends and neighbors. Voting is the most common form of participation (only a little over 50 percent), writing or calling officials is in the middle (about 30 percent), and running for office or engaging in protest is rare (under 5 percent).

Securing the Right to Vote
In the history of American suffrage (the right to vote), seven events stand out:
1) Elimination of Property Qualifications, 1800-1840. The Constitution left voting qualifications to the states to decide. The Founders originally believed that suffrage should only be the purview of property owners. Over time, however, confidence in the judgment of average Americans grew and most property qualifications were eliminated by 1840.
2) Fifteenth Amendment, 1870. Following the Civil War, Congress moved to protect voting rights for newly freed blacks and ensure that race would not be a qualification for voting.
3) Smith v. Allwright, 1944. Despite the Fifteenth Amendment, white southerners still sought to bar blacks from voting. In southern states, the Democratic Party was declared private and the primary, where the party's candidates for the general election were chosen, were only open to whites. The Supreme Court's ruling that the white primary was unconstitutional brought the primary elections under the Fifteenth Amendment. Other methods, such as literacy tests, were still used, however, to deny blacks their voting rights.
4) Civil Rights Legislation, 1964-1965. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 required application of equal voter registration standards. The Twenty-Fourth Amendment outlawed poll taxes. And, the 1965 Voting Rights Act allowed the U.S. Attorney General the power to replace local registrars with federal agents, abolish literacy tests, and simplify voter registration. In 1970 Congress outlawed all voter literacy tests.
5) Nineteenth Amendment, 1920. Guaranteed women the right to vote in all elections.
6) Twenty-sixth Amendment, 1971. Established the minimum age for voting at eighteen.
7) National Voter Registration Act, 1993. This act, also known as the "Motor Voter Act," requires states to register voters when they apply for a driver's license or welfare services. The law also requires states to allow registration by mail and the use of a simplified form. Plus, voters cannot be removed from the rolls for not voting.

Why Vote?
Voter turnout -- the number of voters who actually cast ballots in an election as a percentage of people eligible to register and vote -- is less than half in the U.S. in most years. There are several reasons for the low voter turnout. In the "rational voter" model the reasoning says that opportunity costs in terms of lost family/leisure time and the burdens of registration on the one hand, combined on the other with a low probability that one's individual vote will actually determine the election outcome and a belief that the party in power will not make a difference in one's own life. For some the rigors of registering prevent them from voting. Having to travel to the courthouse, remembering to register and complicated procedures work against some potential voters. Eight-five percent of those who register do vote in presidential elections, however only about fifty percent of eligible voters do register. Registration helps to prevent voter fraud, however.

The actual management of the polls and creation of ballots is left to the county government. Methods vary widely and often lead to confusion. State laws concerning ballot certification and recounts often lack specificity.

The Politics of Voter Turnout
Party politics factors into the debate over voter registration. Typically, Democrats, many of whose supporters are less-educated, lower-income or minorities, favor less restrictions. The greater the competition between candidates or parties the greater the voter turnout, since a lively competition spurs more media coverage and voter interest. On the other hand, when people feel politics is irrelevant to their lives and that they cannot affect public affairs, known as political alienation, they are much less likely to vote. Political alienation is high among American voters. Those who feel strongly about politics and/or have strong opinions about politics are more likely to vote.

Despite the easing of registration requirements, voter turnout has continued to decline in America over the past few decades. The reasons are not entirely clear but political scientists point to rising political alienation, the focus on negativity in politics and the media, the declining role of political parties, and the expansion of the vote to eighteen year olds who tend to vote less than older voters.

Voters and Nonvoters
Low education is the most important variable associated with nonvoting. Education increases political efficacy, which is the belief one can influence politics. Nonvoters are also more likely to be younger, lower in income, and non-white. African Americans, however, have closed much of the voting gap in the last few decades, whereas large discrepancies remain regarding the Hispanic vote.

Nonvoting: What Difference Does it Make?
Voting is an expression of good citizenship and conveys legitimacy on the government. In a democratic government the right to vote is as important as actual turnout. Not voting is itself a statement to politicians. Class bias in voting, however, is a concern. If most voters are older, higher-income, better-educated whites then the system may not reflect the true makeup of the population and address the needs and wants of the people.

Protest as Political Participation
The Constitution guarantees the right to protest, march and demonstrate as a means of political participation. Protests are used to call attention to an issue or to motivate others to apply pressure on public officials. Media coverage is vital to the success of protestors and the confrontational views spur interest in media. Protests are most used by those groups who otherwise have little power or influence in politics. Successful protests that draw media attention can place issues on the national agenda. A prime example, of course, was the civil disobedience practiced in the civil rights movement of the 1960s, where Martin Luther King and his supporters broke "unjust" laws to bring civil rights issues to the attention of the media and the nation. To be effective, protest must be targeted toward limited, specific objectives which can be granted by the targets of protest. Protest is particularly likely to be effective when the objective is a value already widely held in the prevailing political culture, such as demands for representation in a decision-making process which affects those in the protesting group in important ways. Violence has also been used in American politics in the form of assassinations and rioting, but differs from protests which is constitutional protected.

Chapter Objectives:

After mastering the concepts in this chapter, you will be able to

• Define public opinion.
• Discuss important bias considerations when interpreting results of survey research.
• Name the five major sources of political socialization, briefly summarizing what research suggests is the effect of each.
• Explain the role of ideology in public opinion, giving illustrations for liberal and conservative.
• Trace where the gender gap affects public opinion and where it does not.
• Explain how race affects public opinion.
• Identify the intervening factor which relates public opinion to public policy, explaining why it is important.
• Name several forms of political participation in the United States, ranking their relative frequency.
• Give a brief history of suffrage in terms of the milestone developments discussed in the text.
• Trace general trends in voter turnout.
• Explain nonvoting in terms of the rational voter model.
• Show how competition, alienation, and intensity affect nonvoting.
• Give a profile of nonvoters.
• Explain how nonvoting adversely affects American democracy.
• Evaluate the role of various types of political protest as forms of political participation in the United States.