1.
In what sense(s) are pathogens and hosts in conflict? Outline the structure of the influenza A virus and briefly relate that structure to human immune response to the virus. Describe the reasoning behind Fitch et al.'s hypothesis that flu strains with novel antigenic sites should enjoy a selective advantage. Discuss the specific predictions and tests of their hypothesis, and explain how their findings may be useful for predicting which circulating flu strains are most likely to have surviving descendants (be sure to include any relevant evidence that this approach actually works). Is this the same as predicting which strain(s) will be responsible for a subsequent year's epidemic? Explain.
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2.
Discuss the reasoning behind, and evidence for, the hypothesis that flu pandemics begin when human and bird strains of influenza A simultaneously infect a pig, swap genes, then infect people.
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3.
Discuss the evidence from studies of bacterial evolution within individuals, studies of the incidence of resistant bacteria in newly-diagnosed vs. relapsed patients, and studies of the relationship between the incidence of resistance and society-wide antibiotic use for the hypothesis that the use of antibiotics selects for resistant strains of bacteria.
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4.
What are the potential costs of resistance to bacteria? Describe how Schrag et al. tested the hypothesis that alterations in bacterial genomes may compensate for the costs of resistance and discuss the results of those tests. What are the implications of these findings for human health? Outline Levy's guidelines for limiting the evolution of antibiotic resistance, relating each to the processes by which resistance evolves.
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5.
Define virulence. Compare and contrast the "coincidental evolution", "short-sighted evolution", and "trade-off" hypotheses for the evolution of virulence. Identify the key assumption of the trade-off hypothesis and explain why, according to this model, selection should not always favor an increase in within-host reproductive rate. Describe Messenger et al.'s experimental test of the trade-off hypothesis, being sure to discuss the experimental design, key predictions, and results.
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6.
Discuss Ewald's application of the trade-off hypothesis for the evolution of virulence to human pathogens by explaining the reasoning behind his specific predictions about how differences in transmission mode should result in differences in virulence. How did he test these predictions, and what did he find? What are the general and specific implications of these findings for the effect of human behavior on the severity of human diseases?
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7.
Illustrate the fact that tissues within organisms can follow their own "evolutionary trajectories" using Hirschhorn et al.'s studies of the ADA patient who spontaneously recovered from this serious genetic disease. If Hirschhorn et al. are correct in their hypothesis for the mechanism of recovery, what are the implications for the current practice of using enzyme replacement therapy in conjunction with somatic gene replacement therapy for this disease?
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8.
Using Shibata et al.'s work with a patient with colorectal adenocarcinoma as an example, explain how treating cancers as populations of evolving cells can be a productive approach.
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9.
How does the modern urban environment differ from that of our presumptive hunter-gatherer ancestors? What evidence suggests that at least some adaptive change has taken place over historical times in response to a modern environment? What lines of reasoning support the statement that our "bodies and brains . . . are largely designed for life in the Stone Age"?
[Hint ]
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10.
Using the information provided, evaluate the hypothesis that alleles predisposing people to myopia have not been selected against historically because those alleles do not cause myopia in hunter-gatherer environments. What additional studies would strengthen that conclusion?
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11.
Discuss the evidence that continuous menstrual cycling is a maladaptive consequence of modern urban lifestyles. How strongly does the fact that the breast cancer rate in urban West African women is about one-twelfth that of North American women support this hypothesis? Explain. If the hypothesis is correct, what implications might it have for novel strategies to reduce the risk of breast cancer?
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12.
Describe the two possible evolutionary interpretations of fever. Discuss the evidence from studies of desert iguanas that, for these and other ectotherms, fever is an adaptive response. Use the graphs to help you formulate your answer.
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13.
Explain why distinguishing between the two evolutionary hypotheses for fever is difficult in endotherms generally, and humans in particular, using studies of fever suppression in chicken pox, common cold, and sepsis patients to illustrate. Even if fever were shown to be a generally adaptive response in humans, why would fever suppression remain a valid medical intervention in at least some cases?
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14.
Describe the basic premises of evolutionary psychology with special attention to the role of selection in shaping behavior and the evolutionary and psychological mechanisms that mediate the relationship between selection and behavior. Why does this approach to the study of human behavior require caution? Be sure to identify, in particular, potential difficulties with testing predictions about the evolution of human behavior.
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15.
Describe the pattern of parenting behavior found in male reed buntings and discuss the evidence supporting the hypothesis that males are selectively directing parental care toward their own offspring. In what sense can we legitimately say that the male's genotype determines parental effort, and in what sense can we not say so?
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16.
Discuss Flinn's observational study of parent-child interactions in rural Trinidad, clearly identifying the hypothesis he was testing, the methods he used to do so (including relevant controls), and his findings. How do these compare to the findings in the study of reed buntings? What evidence do studies of other cultures provide that this pattern may be widespread in humans? Discuss Flinn and England's and Daly and Wilson's evidence that discrimination by parents against stepchildren has public-health consequences. Do these studies suggest that antagonism toward stepchildren is adaptive? Explain.
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